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La Operación Pedro Pan fue una de las más crueles de la guerra fría porque conllevó la separación de miles niños cubanos de sus familias. En pleno incremento de las tensiones que llevaron al rompimiento de las relaciones cubano-estadounidenses, a la invasión de bahía de Cochinos y a la crisis de los misiles, el gobierno norteamericano puso en marcha un programa de evacuación de niños cubanos basado en una mentira fabricada por sus organismos de inteligencia. Preocupados por un rumor de que el gobierno revolucionario cubano le iba a quitar la patria potestad de sus hijos por medio de una ley, miles de padres y madres cubanas enviaron sus hijos a Estados Unidos, en donde luego les debían darles alcance.  Sin embargo, por diversos factores que analiza la historiadora Deborah Shnookal, miles de estos niños quedaron varados en territorio estadounidense. Demasiados de ellos no volvieron a tener contacto con su familia.

La Dra. Shnookal es una historiadora australiana dedicada al estudio de la historia cubana. Es investigadora en el Institute of Latin American Studies en La Trobe University y autora  de Operation Pedro Pan and the Exodus of Children from Cuba (University Press of Florida, 2020).

Los interesados en este tema pueden consultar el libro de Yvonne M. Conde, Operation Pedro Pan. The Untold Exodus of 14,048 Cuban Children (Routledge, 1999) y el artículo de Susan Maret y Lea Aschkenas, “Operation Pedro Pan: The Hidden History of 14,000 Cuban Children” (Research in Social Problems and Public Policy, 19, 171–184).


Operación Peter Pan: los 14.000 niños que huyeron del comunismo

Las víctimas olvidadas de la Crisis de los Misiles

Deborah Shnookal

NACLA   18 de octubre de 2022

Hace sesenta años, cuando Moscú y Washington llegaron a un acuerdo que resolvió la crisis de los misiles cubanos en octubre de 1962, el mundo respiró aliviado. Pero para 4,100 de los 14,000 niños cubanos no acompañados que habían llegado a Miami en los 22 meses previos, y que todavía estaban dispersos por todo Estados Unidos, el futuro parecía sombrío. La perspectiva de reunirse con sus familias era más incierta que nunca.

Curiosamente apodada Operación Pedro (o Peter) Pan, el  plan de evacuación de niños cubanos se había iniciado en el período previo a la fatídica invasión de Bahía de Cochinos en abril de 1961. Washington había esperado que al ofrecer refugio a los hijos de activistas anticastristas, más cubanos permanecerían en la isla y participarían en lo que se esperaba que fuera el derrocamiento exitoso de Fidel Castro y detuviera el proceso revolucionario que se aceleraba rápidamente.

Lo que estaba detrás de este éxodo masivo sin precedentes de niños cubanos sigue siendo muy controvertido. En Cuba, a pesar de que nadie fue arrestado o acusado por haber organizado el plan de evacuación, la historia a menudo se relata como un secuestro masivo de los ciudadanos más pequeños de la nación. Por otro lado, la historia de la Operación Pedro Pan ha ayudado a reforzar la política beligerante de Washington hacia la Cuba revolucionaria durante más de medio siglo.

El engaño de “Patria Potestad”

Cuando el presidente de Estados Unidos, Donald Trump, anunció en junio de 2017 que estaba  “cancelando” la política hacia Cuba de su predecesor Barack Obama, hizo mención especial del éxodo como evidencia de lo que enfatizó era la “naturaleza brutal del régimen de Castro”.  Al hacerlo, simplemente estaba reiterando lo que se ha convertido  en la visión ortodoxa en los Estados Unidos: que la operación era una misión humanitaria urgente para salvar a los niños cubanos del “adoctrinamiento comunista”.

Deborah Shnookal - Historian, writer, editor - Melbourne, Victoria,  Australia | LinkedInEl puente aéreo fue impulsado por un rumor generalizado de que el gobierno estaba a punto de promulgar una nueva ley que eliminaría la patria potestad. Este engaño sin duda aprovechó los temores, prejuicios e inseguridades entre los cubanos en gran parte blancos y más privilegiados en un clima político altamente volátil. La introducción de guarderías para alentar a las mujeres a participar en la fuerza laboral y el proceso revolucionario, junto con la desegregación, nacionalización y secularización de un sistema educativo previamente altamente discriminatorio y corrupto, también alarmó a los sectores más conservadores de la sociedad cubana.

Los agentes de guerra psicológica de la CIA en Cuba llegaron a imprimir y hacer circular un falso “decreto” del gobierno que describía los planes del gobierno para asumir la custodia de sus ciudadanos más jóvenes. Solo décadas más tarde algunos ex agentes como Antonio Veciana expresaron su sincero pesar por su participación en la perpetración de este fraude.

En la atmósfera de la Guerra Fría, la publicidad sobre la difícil situación de los pequeños exiliados cubanos alimentó la propaganda estadounidense contra la revolución en el país y en el extranjero. Un documental desgarrador con un niño triste y solitario fue hecho y distribuido por la United States Information Agency, y los llamamientos para las familias de acogida publicados en los periódicos estadounidenses declararon sin rodeos: “Podemos pensar en pocas maneras mejores de ‘luchar contra el comunismo’ que cuidar a los niños que huyen de él”.

Los Pedro Pan fueron exhibidos como celebridades anticomunistas junior en las funciones de la Legión Americana y la Iglesia Católica para contar sus historias de horror de la Cuba de Castro, y sus “salvadores“ fueron aclamados como héroes.

Del “rescate” al aislamiento

El puente aéreo fue facilitado por una política de inmigración extraordinaria, políticamente motivada y sin precedentes. Durante los años de Trump, los hijos de familias centroamericanas y otras familias migrantes fueron brutalmente arrancados de los brazos de sus padres en nombre de una política de “tolerancia cero” hacia los indocumentados que ingresan. En contraste, después de la Revolución Cubana, el padre (más tarde monseñor) Bryan Walsh, un joven sacerdote que dirigía un pequeño personal en la Oficina Católica de Bienestar en Miami, recibió el visto bueno del Departamento de Estado para firmar exenciones de visa para tantos niños cubanos como sus padres quisieran despachar.

Se estableció un programa de cuidado de crianza financiado con fondos federales  (el Cuban Children’s Programs), y en pocos años se había convertido en una parte importante del presupuesto de refugiados del gobierno federal. Lejos de ser superados por el pánico por la supuesta amenaza a las mentes de los niños y los derechos de los padres, algunas familias cubanas vieron esto como una oportunidad para una muy codiciada “beca” (o beca) para que sus hijos estudien y aprendan inglés en el Norte, un factor que con frecuencia se pasa por alto en los relatos de la operación.

Para octubre de 1962, el plan de evacuación de niños había cumplido en gran medida su propósito en las guerras encubiertas y de propaganda de Washington  contra la Revolución Cubana. Las redes anticastristas en Cuba en las que se había basado la operación se debilitaron significativamente. Más importante aún, sin embargo, el puente aéreo ya no era viable después de la cancelación de vuelos directos entre los Estados Unidos y Cuba.

En este punto, la política de Estados Unidos hacia Cuba se volvió aislacionista, haciendo que la emigración de la isla fuera más difícil y costosa ya que los cubanos tenían que viajar a través de terceros países. Esto obstaculizó significativamente la posibilidad de reunir a los niños varados con sus familias. Además, el número de niños que requerían colocación era abrumador para las agencias de cuidado de crianza en Florida y en otros lugares, y los jóvenes cubanos que llegaban a Miami durante 1962 a menudo tenían más probabilidades de ser enviados a orfanatos y otras colocaciones inapropiadas si no podían ser reclamados por familiares o amigos.

Estos cambios de política resaltaron las justificaciones defectuosas para el programa: ¿las mentes de los niños que permanecen en Cuba ya no estaban en peligro? ¿Por qué detener el esfuerzo de evacuación, incluso si era más difícil en este momento?

Como reconoció el ex diplomático estadounidense en La Habana Wayne Smith, “ahora sabemos que los rumores [sobre la ley ‘patria potestad’] eran falsos. Los niños [que se quedaron en Cuba] no fueron separados de sus familias, por lo que la dolorosa experiencia no fue realmente necesaria”.

La generación Pedro Pan crece

¿Qué pasó con esos miles de jóvenes cubanos que se encontraron varados por los trascendentales acontecimientos de octubre de 1962? La mayoría, pero no todos, se reunieron con sus familias cuando comenzaron los llamados Vuelos de la Libertad de Cuba a los Estados Unidos en diciembre de 1965. Sin embargo, varios meses después, entre el 5 y el 10 por ciento de los Pedro Pan aún no se habían reunido con al menos uno de los padres. Alrededor del 3 por ciento nunca volvió a conectarse con sus familias, y solo un puñado de ellos regresó a vivir en Cuba.

Operación Peter Pan: así la CIA trasladó secretamente a EE.UU. y España más  de 14 mil niños cubanos sin acompañantes › Hoy en la Historia › Granma -  Órgano oficial del PCC

Cuando las familias finalmente se reunieron, en ciudades y pueblos de todo el país donde los niños habían sido enviados, a muchos les resultó imposible continuar donde lo habían dejado, especialmente aquellos que habían estado separados durante años. Por lo tanto, aunque los Pedro Pan eran de hecho “niños que podían volar como Peter Pan” en el “juego de hadas” original de J.M. Barrie, la metáfora del éxodo resultó trágicamente irónica. A diferencia del personaje de cuento que nunca creció, muchos de los jóvenes cubanos pronto se encontraron solos en una tierra extranjera y obligados a crecer demasiado rápido.

Con los años, la historia de la huida desesperada de los niños cubanos se convirtió en clave para la base ideológica de la comunidad de exiliados cubanos. Continúa justificando el poder político y los privilegios especiales que los inmigrantes cubanos aún esperan y disfrutan como refugiados “políticos” y no “económicos”. De hecho, algunos cubanoamericanos se enfurecieron recientemente cuando el arzobispo de Miami, Thomas Wenski, se atrevió a comparar a los niños no acompañados de América Central que intentan cruzar la frontera hoy con la huida de los Pedro Pan de la “Cuba comunista”.

Recordemos a Carlos Muñiz VarelaUn final trágico es la paradójica historia de Carlos Muñiz Varela, quien fue asesinado a la edad de 26 años por los mismos exiliados anticastristas que supuestamente lo habían rescatado como un Pedro Pan. Junto con su madre y su hermana, Carlos se estableció en Puerto Rico, donde fue influenciado por el movimiento independentista de la isla. Como estudiante, se unió a un grupo de jóvenes cubanoamericanos que buscaban un diálogo y reconciliación con su tierra natal. Las visitas de estos jóvenes emigrados a Cuba, sin embargo, provocaron una reacción violenta de la comunidad de exiliados. Aunque la organización terrorista en el exilio Omega 7 se atribuyó la responsabilidad del crimen, nadie fue acusado por el asesinato a sangre fría de Carlos.

“Mi madre tomó la decisión de enviarme [fuera del país]”, comentó Silvia Wilhelm, ex Pedro Pan, “pero la decisión de regresar fue mía”.  Sintió la necesidad de regresar “para cerrar el círculo y hacer las paces con nosotros mismos, nuestra historia y nuestro país”. Para muchos padres, sin embargo, tales visitas de retorno desafiaron no solo su dolorosa decisión de enviar a sus hijos fuera del país solos, sino su propia identidad como comunidad de exiliados.

Un ex Pedro Pan reflexionó enojado: “Comencé a sentirme parte de un gran engaño de una enorme máquina manipuladora … Lo que había sucedido es que los estadounidenses estaban utilizando a los cubanos: la salida de los niños había sido una herramienta de propaganda. Y lo que salió de los campamentos [de niños de Miami] fue una generación herida”.

Muchas familias cubanas permanecen divididas hoy, política y geográficamente. Sesenta años después, recordar la trágica historia de la Operación Pedro Pan arroja luz sobre cuán efectivamente los sentimientos familiares naturales fueron manipulados por la propaganda de la Guerra Fría y cómo los niños cubanos quedaron atrapados en un juego de poder político internacional. Aunque poco conocido entre la población en general en los Estados Unidos, el episodio sigue siendo una piedra de toque en las relaciones entre Estados Unidos y Cuba y todavía se recuerda con gran amargura en ambos lados del Estrecho de Florida.

Traducido por Norberto Barreto Velázquez

 

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John Dower es un destacado historiador estadounidense miembro emérito del Departamento de Historia del Massachussets Institute of Technology. En su larga y fructífera carrera,  el Dr. Dower  se ha destacado como analista de la historia japonesa y de las relaciones exteriores de Estados Unidos. El análisis de la guerra ha ocupado una parte importante de su trabajo académico. Su libro Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (1999) ganó varios premios prestigiosos, entre ellos, el Pulitzer y el Bancroft. Es autor, además, de War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (1986), Japan in War and Peace: Selected Essays (1994),  Cultures of War: Pearl Harbor/Hiroshima/9-11/Iraq (2010), and Ways of Forgetting, Ways of Remembering: Japan in the Modern World (2012). 

En el siguiente artículo publicado en TomDispatch, Dower enfoca cómo a lo largo de su historia, los estadounidenses han, no sólo recordado, sino también olvidado las guerras en las que han participado para preservar así su auto-representación de víctimas, tema que discute a profundidad en su último libro The Violent American Century: War and Terror Since World War Two (2018).


The last near-century of American dominance was extraordinarily violent |  Business Standard News

Pérdida de memoria en el jardín de la violencia

JOHN DOWER

TomDisptach  30 de julio de 2021

Hace algunos años, un artículo periodístico atribuyó a un visitante europeo la irónica observación de que los estadounidenses son encantadores porque tienen una memoria muy corta. Cuando se trata de las guerras de la nación, no estaba del todo incorrecto. Los estadounidenses abrazan las historias militares del tipo heroico «banda de hermanos [estadounidenses]», especialmente en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Poseen un apetito aparentemente ilimitado por los recuentos de la Guerra Civil, de lejos el conflicto más devastador del país en lo que respecta a las muertes.

Ciertos momentos históricos traumáticos como «el Álamo» y «Pearl Harbor» se han convertido en palabras clave —casi dispositivos mnemotécnicos— para reforzar el recuerdo de la victimización estadounidense a manos de antagonistas nefastos. Thomas Jefferson y sus pares en realidad establecieron la línea de base para esto en el documento fundacional de la nación, la Declaración de Independencia, que consagra el recuerdo de «los despiadados salvajes indios», una demonización santurrona que resultó ser repetitiva para una sucesión de enemigos percibidos más tarde. «11 de septiembre» ha ocupado su lugar en esta invocación profundamente arraigada de la inocencia violada, con una intensidad que raya en la histeria.

John W. Dower | The New Press

John Dower

Esa «conciencia de víctima» no es, por supuesto, única de los estadounidenses. En Japón después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, esta frase —higaisha ishiki  en japonés— se convirtió en el centro de las críticas de izquierda a los conservadores que se obsesionaron con los muertos de guerra de su país y parecían incapaces de reconocer cuán gravemente el Japón imperial había victimizado a otros, millones de chinos y cientos de miles de coreanos. Cuando los actuales miembros del gabinete japonés visitan el Santuario Yasukuni, donde se venera a los soldados y marineros fallecidos del emperador, están alimentando la conciencia de las víctimas y son duramente criticados por hacerlo por el mundo exterior, incluidos los medios de comunicación estadounidenses.

En todo el mundo,  los días y los monumentos conmemorativos de guerra garantizan la preservación de ese recuerdo selectivo. Mi estado natal de Massachusetts también hace esto hasta el día de hoy al enarbolar la bandera «POW-MIA» en blanco y negro de la Guerra de Vietnam en varios lugares públicos, incluido Fenway Park, hogar de los Medias Rojas de Boston, todavía afligidos por los hombres que luchaban que fueron capturados o desaparecieron en acción y nunca regresaron a casa.

De una forma u otra, los nacionalismos populistas de hoy son manifestaciones de la aguda conciencia de víctima. Aún así, la forma estadounidense de recordar y olvidar sus guerras es distintiva por varias razones. Geográficamente, la nación es mucho más segura que otros países. Fue la única entre las principales potencias que escapó de la devastación en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y ha sido inigualable en riqueza y poder desde entonces. A pesar del pánico por las amenazas comunistas en el pasado y las amenazas islamistas y norcoreanas en el presente, Estados Unidos nunca ha estado seriamente en peligro por fuerzas externas. Aparte de la Guerra Civil, sus muertes relacionadas con la guerra han sido trágicas, pero notablemente más bajas que las cifras de muertes militares y civiles de otras naciones, invariablemente incluidos los adversarios de Estados Unidos.

Captura de Pantalla 2021-08-15 a la(s) 00.31.14

Soldados filipinos, 1899.

La asimetría en los costos humanos de los conflictos que involucran a las fuerzas estadounidenses ha sido el patrón desde la aniquilación de los amerindios y la conquista estadounidense de Filipinas entre 1899 y 1902. La Oficina del Historiador del Departamento de Estado cifra el número de muertos en esta última guerra en «más de 4.200 combatientes estadounidenses y más de 20.000 filipinos», y procede a añadir que «hasta 200.000 civiles filipinos murieron de violencia, hambruna y enfermedades». (Entre otras causas precipitantes de esas muertes de no combatientes, está  la matanza por tropas estadounidense de búfalos de agua de los que dependían los agricultores para producir sus cultivos). Trabajos académicos recientes eleven el número muertes de civiles filipinos.

 

La misma asimetría mórbida caracteriza las muertes relacionadas con la guerra en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la Guerra de Corea, la Guerra de Vietnam, la Guerra del Golfo de 1991 y las invasiones y ocupaciones de Afganistán e Irak después del 11 de septiembre de 2001.

Bombardeo terrorista de la Segunda Guerra Mundial a Corea y Vietnam al 9/11

Si bien es natural que las personas y las naciones se centran en su propio sacrificio y sufrimiento en lugar de en la muerte y la destrucción que ellos mismos infligen, en el caso de los Estados Unidos ese astigmatismo cognitivo está relegado por el sentido permanente del país de ser excepcional, no sólo en el poder sino también en la virtud. En apoyo al «excepcionalismo estadounidense», es un artículo de fe que los valores más altos de la civilización occidental y judeocristiana guían la conducta de la nación, a lo que los estadounidenses agregan el apoyo supuestamente único de su país a la democracia, el respeto por todos y cada uno de los individuos y la defensa incondicional de un orden internacional «basado en reglas».

Tal autocomplacencia requiere y refuerza la memoria selectiva. «Terror», por ejemplo, se ha convertido en una palabra aplicada a los demás, nunca a uno mismo. Y sin embargo, durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, los planificadores de bombardeos estratégicos estadounidenses y británicos consideraron explícitamente su bombardeo de bombas incendiadas contra ciudades enemigas como bombardeos terroristas, e identificaron la destrucción de la moral de los no combatientes en territorio enemigo como necesaria y moralmente aceptable. Poco después de la devastación aliada de la ciudad alemana de Dresde en febrero de 1945, Winston Churchill, cuyo busto circula dentro y fuera de la Oficina Oval presidencial en Washington, se refirió  al «bombardeo de ciudades alemanas simplemente por el bien de aumentar el terror, aunque bajo otros pretextos».

Captura de Pantalla 2021-08-09 a la(s) 08.59.10

Hiroshima, setiembre de 1945.

En la guerra contra Japón, las fuerzas aéreas estadounidenses adoptaron esta práctica con una venganza casi alegre, pulverizando 64 ciudades  antes de los bombardeos atómicos de Hiroshima y Nagasaki en agosto de 1945. Sin embargo, cuando los 19 secuestradores de al-Qaeda bombardearon el World Trade Center y el Pentágono en 2001, el «bombardeo terrorista» destinado a destruir la moral se desprendió de este precedente angloamericano y quedó relegado a «terroristas no estatales». Al mismo tiempo, se declaró que atacar a civiles inocentes era una atrocidad totalmente contraria a los valores «occidentales» civilizados y una prueba prima facie del salvajismo inherente al Islam.

La santificación del espacio que ocupaba el destruido World Trade Center como «Zona Cero» —un término previamente asociado con las explosiones nucleares en general e Hiroshima en particular— reforzó esta hábil manipulación de la memoria. Pocas o ninguna figura pública estadounidense reconoció o le importó que esta nomenclatura gráfica se apropiaba de Hiroshima, cuyo gobierno de la ciudad sitúa el número de víctimas mortales del bombardeo atómico «a finales de diciembre de 1945, cuando los efectos agudos del envenenamiento por radiación habían disminuido en gran medida», en alrededor de 140.000. (El número estimado de muertos en Nagasaki es de 60.000 a 70.000). El contexto de esos dos ataques —y de todas las bombas incendiadas de ciudades alemanas y japonesas que les precedieron— obviamente difiere en gran medida del terrorismo no estatal y de los atentados suicidas con bombas infligidos por los terroristas de hoy.  No obstante, «Hiroshima» sigue siendo el símbolo más revelador y preocupante de los bombardeos terroristas en los tiempos modernos, a pesar de la eficacia con la que, para las generaciones presentes y futuras, la retórica de la «Zona Cero» posterior al 9/11 alteró el panorama de la memoria y ahora connota la victimización estadounidense.

Dong Xoai June 1965

Civiles vietnamitas, Dong Xoai, junio de 1965

La memoria corta también ha borrado casi todos los recuerdos estadounidenses de la extensión estadounidense de los bombardeos terroristas a Corea e Indochina. Poco después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el United States Strategic Bombing Survey calculó  que las fuerzas aéreas angloamericanas en el teatro europeo habían lanzado 2,7 millones de toneladas de bombas, de las cuales 1,36 millones de toneladas apuntaron a Alemania. En el teatro del Pacífico, el tonelaje total caído por los aviones aliados fue de 656.400, de los cuales el 24% (160.800 toneladas) se usó en islas de origen de Japón. De estas últimas, 104.000 toneladas «se dirigieron a 66 zonas urbanas». Impactante en ese momento, en retrospectiva, estas cifras han llegado a parecer modestas en comparación con el tonelaje de explosivos que las fuerzas estadounidenses descargaron en Corea y más tarde en Vietnam, Camboya y Laos.

La historia oficial de la guerra aérea en Corea (The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953)  registra que las fuerzas aéreas de las Naciones Unidas lideradas por Estados Unidos volaron más de un millón de incursiones y, en total, dispararon un total de 698.000 toneladas de artillería contra el enemigo. En su libro de memorias de 1965  Mission with LeMay, el general Curtis LeMay, que dirigió el bombardeo estratégico tanto de Japón como de Corea, señaló: «Quemamos casi todas las ciudades de Corea del Norte y Corea del  Sur… Matamos a más de un millón de civiles coreanos y expulsamos a varios millones más de sus hogares, con las inevitables tragedias adicionales que en consecuencia se producirían».

Otras fuentes sitúan el número estimado de civiles muertos en la Guerra de Corea hasta  tres millones, o posiblemente incluso más. Dean Rusk, un partidario de la guerra que luego se desempeñó como secretario de Estado,  recordó que Estados Unidos bombardeó «todo lo que se movía en Corea del Norte, cada ladrillo de pie encima de otro». En medio de esta «guerra limitada», los funcionarios estadounidenses también se cuidaron de dejar claro en varias ocasiones que no habían descartado  el uso de armas nucleares. Esto incluso implicó ataques nucleares simulados en Corea del Norte por B-29 que operaban desde Okinawa en una operación de 1951 con nombre en código Hudson Harbor.

En Indochina, como en la Guerra de Corea, apuntar a «todo lo que se movía» era prácticamente un mantra entre las fuerzas combatientes estadounidenses, una especie de contraseña que legitimaba la matanza indiscriminada. La historia reciente de la guerra de Vietnam, extensamente investigada por Nick Turse, por ejemplo, toma su título de una orden militar para «matar a cualquier cosa que se mueva». Los documentos publicados por los National Archives en 2004 incluyen una transcripción de una conversación telefónica de 1970 en la que Henry Kissinger  transmitió  las órdenes del presidente Richard Nixon de lanzar «una campaña masiva de bombardeos en Camboya». Cualquier cosa que vuele sobre cualquier cosa que se mueva».

My_Lai_massacre

Masacre de My Lai

En Laos, entre 1964 y 1973, la CIA ayudó a dirigir el bombardeo aéreo per cápita más pesado de la historia, desatando más de dos millones de toneladas de artefactos en el transcurso de 580.000 bombardeos, lo que equivale a un avión cargado de bombas cada ocho minutos durante aproximadamente una década completa. Esto incluía alrededor de 270 millones de bombas de racimo. Aproximadamente el 10% de la población total de Laos fue asesinada. A pesar de los efectos devastadores de este ataque, unos 80 millones de las bombas de racimo lanzadas no detonaron, dejando el país devastado plagado de mortíferos artefactos explosivos sin detonar hasta el día de hoy.

La carga útil de las bombas descargadas en Vietnam, Camboya y Laos entre mediados de la década de 1960 y 1973 se calcula comúnmente que fue de entre siete y ocho millones de toneladas, más de 40 veces el tonelaje lanzado sobre las islas japonesas en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Las estimaciones del total de muertes varían, pero todas son extremadamente altas. En un artículo del Washington Post  en 2012, John Tirman  señaló  que «según varias estimaciones académicas, las muertes de militares y civiles vietnamitas oscilaron entre 1,5 millones y 3,8 millones, con la campaña liderada por Estados Unidos en Camboya resultando en 600.000 a 800.000 muertes, y la mortalidad de la guerra laosiana estimada en alrededor de 1 millón».

Civil War Casualties | American Battlefield Trust

Estadounidenses muertos en batalla

En el lado estadounidense, el Departamento de Asuntos de Veteranos sitúa las muertes en batalla en la Guerra de Corea en 33.739. A partir del Día de los Caídos de 2015, el largo muro del profundamente conmovedor Monumento a los Veteranos de Vietnam en Washington estaba inscrito con los nombres de  58.307  militares estadounidenses asesinados entre 1957 y 1975, la gran mayoría de ellos a partir de 1965. Esto incluye aproximadamente  1.200 hombres  listados como desaparecidos (MIA, POW, etc.), los hombres de combate perdidos cuya bandera de recuerdo todavía ondea sobre Fenway Park.

Corea del Norte y el espejo agrietado de la guerra nuclear

Hoy en día, los estadounidenses generalmente recuerdan vagamente a Vietnam, y Camboya y Laos no lo recuerdan en absoluto. (La etiqueta inexacta «Guerra de Vietnam» aceleró este último borrado.) La Guerra de Corea también ha sido llamada «la guerra olvidada», aunque un monumento a los veteranos en Washington, D.C., finalmente se le dedicó en 1995, 42 años después del armisticio que suspendió el conflicto. Por el contrario, los coreanos no lo han olvidado. Esto es especialmente cierto en Corea del Norte, donde la enorme muerte y destrucción sufrida entre 1950 y 1953 se mantiene viva a través de interminables iteraciones oficiales de recuerdo, y esto, a su vez, se combina con una implacable campaña de propaganda que llama la atención sobre la Guerra Fría y la intimidación nuclear estadounidense posterior a la Guerra Fría. Este intenso ejercicio de recordar en lugar de olvidar explica en gran medida el actual ruido de sables nucleares del líder de Corea del Norte, Kim Jong-un.

Con sólo un ligero tramo de imaginación, es posible ver imágenes de espejo agrietadas en el comportamiento nuclear y la política arriesgada de los presidentes estadounidenses y el liderazgo dinástico dictatorial de Corea del Norte. Lo que refleja este espejo desconcertante es una posible locura, o locura fingida, junto con un posible conflicto nuclear, accidental o de otro tipo.

North Korea leader Kim Jong Un could have 60 nuclear weapons: South Korea  minister estimates atomic bomb count - CBS News

Kim Jong-un

Para los estadounidenses y gran parte del resto del mundo, Kim Jong-un parece irracional, incluso seriamente desquiciado. (Simplemente combine su nombre con «loco» en una búsqueda en Google). Sin embargo, al agitar su minúsculo carcaj nuclear, en realidad se está uniendo al juego de larga data de la «disuasión nuclear» y practicando lo que se conoce entre los estrategas estadounidenses como la «teoría del loco». Este último término se asocia más famosamente  con Richard Nixon y Henry Kissinger durante la Guerra de Vietnam, pero en realidad está más o menos incrustado en los planes de juego nuclear de Estados Unidos. Como se rearticula en «Essentials of Post-Cold War Deterrence«, un  documento secreto de política redactado por un subcomité en el Comando Estratégico de Estados Unidos en 1995 (cuatro años después de la desaparición de la Unión Soviética), la teoría del loco postula que la esencia de la disuasión nuclear efectiva es inducir «miedo» y «terror» en la mente de un adversario, para lo cual «duele retratarnos a nosotros mismos como demasiado racionales y de cabeza fría».

 

Cuando Kim Jong-un juega a este juego, se le ridiculiza y se teme que sea verdaderamente demente. Cuando son practicados por sus propios líderes y el sacerdocio nuclear, los estadounidenses han sido condicionados a ver a los actores racionales en su mejor momento.

El terror, al parecer, en el siglo XXI, como en el XX, está en el ojo del espectador.

 Traducción de Norberto Barreto Velázquez

 

 

 

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The democratically-elected Arbenz government hoped for economic prosperity through economic reform and a highway to the Atlantic.

United States Interventions What For?

By John H. Coatsworth 

Revista Harvard Review of Latin America 

Spring/ Summer 2005

In the slightly less than a hundred years from 1898 to 1994, the U.S. government has intervened successfully to change governments in Latin America a total of at least 41 times. That amounts to once every 28 months for an entire century (see table).

Direct intervention occurred in 17 of the 41 cases. These incidents involved the use of U.S. military forces, intelligence agents or local citizens employed by U.S. government agencies. In another 24 cases, the U.S. government played an indirect role. That is, local actors played the principal roles, but either would not have acted or would not have succeeded without encouragement from the U.S. government.

While direct interventions are easily identified and copiously documented, identifying indirect interventions requires an exercise in historical judgment. The list of 41 includes only cases where, in the author’s judgment, the incumbent government would likely have survived in the absence of U.S. hostility. The list ranges from obvious cases to close calls. An example of an obvious case is the decision, made in the Oval Office in January 1963, to incite the Guatemalan army to overthrow the (dubiously) elected government of Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes in order to prevent an open competitive election that might have been won by left-leaning former President Juan José Arévalo. A less obvious case is that of the Chilean military coup against the government of President Salvador Allende on September 11, 1973. The Allende government had plenty of domestic opponents eager to see it deposed. It is included in this list because U.S. opposition to a coup (rather than encouragement) would most likely have enabled Allende to continue in office until new elections.

The 41 cases do not include incidents in which the United States sought to depose a Latin American government, but failed in the attempt. The most famous such case was the failed Bay of Pigs invasion of April 1961. Allvadorso absent from the list are numerous cases in which the U.S. government acted decisively to forestall a coup d’etat or otherwise protect an incumbent regime from being overthrown.

Overthrowing governments in Latin America has never been exactly routine for the United States. However, the option to depose a sitting government has appeared on the U.S. president’s desk with remarkable frequency over the past century. It is no doubt still there, though the frequency with which the U.S. president has used this option has fallen rapidly since the end of the Cold War.

Though one may quibble about cases, the big debates—both in the public and among historians and social scientists—have centered on motives and causes. In nearly every case, U.S. officials cited U.S. security interests, either as determinative or as a principal motivation. With hindsight, it is now possible to dismiss most these claims as implausible. In many cases, they were understood as necessary for generating public and congressional support, but not taken seriously by the key decision makers. The United States did not face a significant military threat from Latin America at any time in the 20th century. Even in the October 1962 missile crisis, the Pentagon did not believe that the installation of Soviet missiles in Cuba altered the global balance of nuclear terror. It is unlikely that any significant threat would have materialized if the 41 governments deposed by the United States had remained in office until voted out or overturned without U.S. help.

In both the United States and Latin America, economic interests are often seen as the underlying cause of U.S. interventions. This hypothesis has two variants. One cites corruption and the other blames capitalism. The corruption hypothesis contends that U.S. officials order interventions to protect U.S. corporations. The best evidence for this version comes from the decision to depose the elected government of Guatemala in 1954. Except for President Dwight Eisenhower, every significant decision maker in this case had a family, business or professional tie to the United Fruit Company, whose interests were adversely affected by an agrarian reform and other policies of the incumbent government. Nonetheless, in this as in every other case involving U.S. corporate interests, the U.S. government would probably not have resorted to intervention in the absence of other concerns.

The capitalism hypothesis is a bit more sophisticated. It holds that the United States intervened not to save individual companies but to save the private enterprise system, thus benefiting all U.S. (and Latin American) companies with a stake in the region. This is a more plausible argument, based on repeated declarations by U.S. officials who seldom missed an opportunity to praise free enterprise. However, capitalism was not at risk in the overwhelming majority of U.S. interventions, perhaps even in none of them. So this ideological preference, while real, does not help explain why the United States intervened. U.S. officials have also expressed a preference for democratic regimes, but ordered interventions to overthrow elected governments more often than to restore democracy in Latin America. Thus, this preference also fails to carry much explanatory power.

An economist might approach the thorny question of causality not by asking what consumers or investors say about their preferences, but what their actions can help us to infer about them. An economist’s approach might also help in another way, by distinguishing between supply and demand. A look at the supply side suggests that interventions will occur more often where they do not cost much, either directly in terms of decision makers’ time and resources, or in terms of damage to significant interests. On the demand side, two factors seem to have been crucial in tipping decision makers toward intervention: domestic politics and global strategy.

Domestic politics seems to be a key factor in most of these cases. For example, internal documents show that President Lyndon Johnson ordered U.S. troops to the Dominican Republic in 1965 not because of any plausible threat to the United States, but because he felt threatened by Republicans in Congress. Political competition within the United States accounts for the disposition of many U.S. presidentions

nts to order interventions.

The second key demand-side factor could be called the global strategy effect. The United States in the 20th century defined its strategic interests in global terms. This was particularly true after World War II when the United States moved rapidly to project its power into regions of the earth on the periphery of the Communist states where it had never had a presence before. In the case of Latin America, where the United States faced no foreseeable military threat, policy planners did nonetheless identify potential future threats. This was especially true in the 1960s, after the Cuban Revolution. The United States helped to depose nine of the governments that fell to military rulers in the 1960s, about one every 13 months and more than in any other decade. Curiously, however, we now know that U.S. decision makers were repeatedly assured by experts in the CIA and other intelligence gathering agencies that, in the words of a 1968 National Intelligence Estimate, “In no case do insurgencies pose a serious short run threat…revolution seems unlikely in most Latin American countries within the next few years.” Few challenged the idea that leftist regimes would pose a secutiry threat to the United States. threat…revolution seems unlikely in most Latin American countries

Thus, in a region where intervention was not very costly, and even major failures unlikely to damage U.S. interests, the combination of domestic political competition and potential future threats—even those with a low probability of ever materializing—appear to explain most of the 20th century US interventions.

It is difficult to escape the conclusion that U.S. interventions did not serve U.S. national interests well. They generated needless resentment in the region and called into question the U.S. commitment to democracy and rule of law in international affairs. The downward trend in the past decade and half is a positive development much to be encouraged.

CHRONICLING INTERVENTIONS

U.S. DIRECT INTERVENTIONS 
Military/CIA activity that changed governments

COUNTRY YEAR EVENT SUMMARY
Cuba 1898-1902 Spanish-American War
1906-09 Ousts elected Pres. Palma; occupation regime
1917-23 U.S. reoccupation, gradual withdrawal
Dominican Rep 1916-24 U.S. occupation
1961 Assassination of Pres. Trujillo
1965 U.S. Armed Forces occupy Sto Domingo
Grenada 1983 U.S. Armed Forces occupy island; oust government
Guatemala 1954 C.I.A.-organized armed force ousts Pres. Arbenz
Haiti 1915-34 U.S. occupation
1994 U.S. troops restore constitutional government
Mexico 1914 Veracuz occupied; US allows rebels to buy arms
Nicaragua 1910 Troops to Corinto, Bluefields during revolt
1912-25 U.S. occupation
1926-33 U.S. occupation
1981-90 Contra war; then support for opposition in election
Panama 1903-14 U.S. Troops secure protectorate, canal
1989 U.S. Armed Forces occupy nation

U.S. INDIRECT INTERVENTION
Government/regime changes in which U.S. is decisive

COUNTRY YEAR EVENT SUMMARY
Bolivia 1944 Coup uprising overthrow Pres. Villaroel
1963 Military coup ousts elected Pres. Paz Estenssoro
1971 Military coup ousts Gen. Torres
Brazil 1964 Military coup ousts elected Pres. Goulart
Chile 1973 Coup ousts elected Pres. Allende.
1989-90 Aid to anti-Pinochet opposition
Cuba 1933 U.S. abandons support for Pres. Machado
1934 U.S. sponsors coup by Col. Batista to oust Pres. Grau
Dominican Rep. 1914 U.S. secures ouster of Gen. José Bordas
1963 Coup ousts elected Pres. Bosch
El Salvador 1961 Coup ousts reformist civil-military junta
1979 Coup ousts Gen. Humberto Romero
1980 U.S. creates and aids new Christian Demo junta
Guatemala 1963 U.S. supports coup vs elected Pres. Ydígoras
1982 U.S. supports coup vs Gen. Lucas García
1983 U.S. supports coup vs Gen. Rios Montt
Guyana 1953 CIA aids strikes; Govt. is ousted
Honduras 1963 Military coups ousts elected Pres. Morales
Mexico 1913 U.S. Amb. H. L. Wilson organizes coup v Madero
Nicaragua 1909 Support for rebels vs Zelaya govt
1979 U.S. pressures Pres. Somoza to leave
Panama 1941 U.S supports coup ousting elected Pres. Arias
1949 U.S. supports coup ousting constitutional govt of VP Chanís
1969 U.S. supports coup by Gen. Torrijos
John H. Coatsworth is Monroe Gutman Professor of Latin American Affairs. Coatsworth’s most recent book is «The Cambridge Economic History of Latin America,» a two-volume reference work, edited with Victor Bulmer-Thomas and Roberto Cortes Conde – See more at: http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/157958#sthash.I6nAx9Oq.dpuf

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How to Read the Senate Report on CIA Torture

HNN  December 21, 2014

Introduction:

The recent Senate Intelligence Committee’s report on CIA torture is arguably the single most important U.S. government document released to date in this still-young 21st century. Yet even with all its richly revealing detail about the CIA’s recourse to torture since 9/11, the report’s impact on the ongoing U.S. debate over impunity is muted by some serious failings. Above all, the committee’s cursory treatment of Washington’s long, contradictory history with torture renders this report, in certain critical areas, superficial.

No matter what its limitations might be, this Senate report is still an historic document that will be debated for months and analyzed for years. At its most visceral level, these 534 pages of dense, disconcerting detail takes us into a Dante-like hell of waterboard vomit, rectal feeding, midnight-dark cells, endless overhead chaining, and crippling cold. With its mix of capricious cruelty and systemic abuse, the CIA’s Salt Pit prison in Afghanistan can now join that long list of iconic cesspits for human suffering—Devils’ Island, Chateau d’If, Con Son Island, Robben Island, and many, many more. But perhaps most importantly, these details have purged that awkward euphemism “enhanced interrogation techniques” from our polite public lexicon. Now everyone, senator and citizen alike, can just say “torture.”

In its most important contribution, the Senate report sifts through some six million classified documents to rebut the CIA’s claim that torture produced important intelligence. All the agency’s assertions that torture somehow stopped terrorist plots or led us to Osama Bin Laden were false, and sometimes knowingly so. Instead of such spurious claims, CIA director John Brennan has now been forced to admit that any link between torture and actionable intelligence is “unknowable.”

Of equal import, the Senate staffers parsed those millions of CIA documents to shatter the agency’s myth of derring-do infallibility and expose the bumbling mismanagement of its two main missions in the War on Terror: incarceration and intelligence. Every profession has its B-team, every bureaucracy has its bumblers. Instead of sending James Bond, Langley dispatched Mr. Bean and Maxwell Smart—in the persons of psychologists James Mitchell and Bruce Jessen. In perhaps its single most damning detail, the Senate report revealed that the CIA paid these two Air Force retirees $81 million to create sophisticated “enhanced interrogation techniques” after they had spent their careers doing little more than administering the SERE torture-resistance curriculum—a mundane job tailor-made for the mediocrities of modern psychology (more on this in a moment).

Case of Abu Zubaydah:

For all its many strengths, the Senate report is not without some serious limitations. Mired in detail and muffled by opaque pseudonyms, the committee’s analysis of this rich detail is often cursory or convoluted, obscuring its import for even the most discerning reader. This limitation is most apparent in the report’s close case study of Abu Zubaydah, the high-value detainee whose torture at a Thai black site in 2002 proved seminal, convincing the CIA that its enhanced techniques worked and giving these psychologists control over the agency’s program for the next six years. But, says the Senate report, earlier non-coercive interrogation produced more numerous intelligence reports.

This finding is good as far as it goes, but let’s see what more extensive analysis might extract from this critical section of the Senate’s report. Among the countless thousands of interrogations during the War on Terror, Abu Zubaydah’s has been cited repeatedly by conservatives to defend the CIA’s methods.In memoirs published on the tenth anniversary of 9/11, Dick Cheney claimed the CIA’s methods turned this hardened terrorist into a “fount of information” and thus saved “thousands of lives.” But just two week later, Ali Soufan, a former FBI counter-terror agent fluent in Arabic, published his own book claiming he gained “important actionable intelligence” by using empathetic methods to interrogate Abu Zubaydah.

If we juxtapose the many CIA-censored pages of Ali Soufan’s memoir with his earlier, unexpurgated congressional testimony, this interrogation becomes an extraordinary four-stage scientific experiment testing the effectiveness of CIA coercion versus the FBI’s empathy.

Stage One. As soon as Abu Zubaydah was captured in 2002, Ali Soufan flew to Bangkok where he built rapport in Arabic to gain the first intelligence about «the role of KSM [Khalid Sheikh Mohammed] as the mastermind of the 9/11 attacks.» Angered by the FBI’s success, CIA director George Tenet pounded the table and dispatched psychologist James Mitchell, who stripped Zubaydah naked and subjected him to «low-level sleep deprivation.»

Stage Two. After the CIA’s harsh methods got «no information,” the FBI men resumed their empathic questioning of Abu Zubaydah to learn «the details of Jose Padilla, the so-called ‘dirty bomber.'» Then the CIA team took over and moved up the coercive continuum to loud noise, temperature manipulation, and forty-eight hours of sleep deprivation.

Stage Three. But this tough CIA approach again failed, so, for a third time, the FBI men were brought back, using empathetic techniques that produced more details of the Padilla bomb plot.

Stage Four. When the CIA ratcheted up the abuse to confinement that was clearly torture, the FBI ordered Ali Soufan home. With the CIA in sole control, Abu Zubaydah was subjected to weeks of sleep deprivation, sensory disorientation , nudity, and waterboarding but gave no further information. Yet in a stunning bit of illogic, Mitchell claimed this negative result was, in fact, positive since these enhanced techniques showed that the subject had no more secrets to hide. Amazingly, the CIA bought this bit of flim-flam.

Examined closely, the results of this ad hoc experiment were blindingly clear: FBI empathy was effective, while CIA coercion proved consistently counterproductive. But this fundamental yet fragile truth has been obscured by CIA claims of good intelligence from the torture of Abu Zubaydah and by censorship of 181 pages in Ali Soufan’s memoir that reduced his account to a maze of blackened lines that no regular reader can understand.

Unanswered Question:

More broadly, the Senate committee’s report also fails to ask or answer a critical question: If the intelligence yield from torture was so consistently low, why was the CIA so determined to persist in these brutal but unproductive practices for so long? Among the many possibilities the Senate failed to explore is a default bureaucratic response by a security agency flailing about in fear when confronted with an unknown threat. “When feelings of insecurity develop within those holding power,” reported a CIA analysis of the Cold War Kremlin applicable to the post-9/11 White House, “they become increasingly suspicious and put great pressures upon the secret police to obtain arrests and confessions. At such times police officials are inclined to condone anything which produces a speedy ‘confession,’ and brutality may become widespread.”

Moreover, the Senate’s rigorously pseudonymous format strips its report of an element critical to any historical narrative, the actor, thereby rendering much of its text incomprehensible. Understanding the power of narrative, the CIA has given us the Oscar-winning feature film Zero Dark 30 about an heroic female operative whose single-minded pursuit of the facts, through the most brutal of tortures, led the Navy SEALs to Osama Bin Laden. While the CIA has destroyed videotapes of these interrogations and censored Ali Soufan’s critical account, scriptwriter Mark Boal was given liberal access to classified sources.

Instead of a photogenic leading lady, the Senate report offers only opaque snippets about an anonymous female analyst who played a pivotal role in one of the CIA’s biggest blunders—snatching an innocent German national, Khaled el-Masri, and subjecting him to four months of abuse in the Salt Pit prison. That same operative later defended torture by telling the CIA’s own Inspector General that the waterboarding of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed had extracted the name of terrorist Majid Khan—when, in fact, Khan was already in CIA custody. Hinting at something badly wrong inside the agency, the author of these derelictions was rewarded with a high post in the CIA’s Counter-Terrorism Center.

By quickly filling in the blanks, journalists have shown us the real story about this operative that the Senate suppressed and Hollywood glorified. This CIA “Torture Queen,” reports Jane Mayer in the December 18 issue of the New Yorker, “dropped the ball when the C.I.A. was given information that might very well have prevented the 9/11 attacks; …gleefully participated in torture sessions afterward; …misinterpreted intelligence in such a way that it sent the C.I.A. on an absurd chase for Al Qaeda sleeper cells in Montana. And then she falsely told congressional overseers that the torture worked.”

After all that, this agent, whom Glenn Greenwald has identified as Alfreda Bikowsky, has now been promoted to a top CIA post and rewarded with a high salary that, says an activist website, recently allowed her to buy a luxury home in Reston, Virginia for $875,000. In short, adding the name and narrative reveals a consistent pattern of CIA incompetence, the corrupting influence of intelligence gleaned from torture, and the agency’s perpetrators as self-aggrandizing incompetents.

Cold War History:

The Senate report’s signal failing is its cursory treatment of the sixty-year history of secrecy that inscribed tolerance for psychological torture into the country’s intelligence community, political culture, and federal laws.

Viewed historically, the current controversy is the product of a deeply contradictory U.S. policy toward torture since the start of the Cold War. Publicly, Washington advocated a strong standard for human rights–manifest in the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 and the Geneva Conventions of 1949. Simultaneously and secretly, however, the CIA was developing ingenious new torture techniques in contravention of these same international conventions.

From 1950 to 1962, the CIA led a secret allied research effort to crack the code of human consciousness, a veritable Manhattan project of the mind. While its exotic experiments with LSD led nowhere, CIA-funded behavioral research produced two key findings—sensory deprivation and self-inflicted pain—that became central to its new doctrine of psychological torture.

After four years of mind control research for use against the enemy, President Eisenhower ordered, in 1955, that all American soldiers at risk of capture be trained to resist torture. During the Korean War, about thirty captured US airmen were tortured to make false statements, some on Radio Beijing, that America had used biological weapons in North Korea. Consequently, the Air Force flipped these methods from offense to defense to give its pilots so-called SERE training—an acronym for Survival, Evasion, Resistance, Escape.

After a decade of mind-control research, in 1963 the CIA codified its findings in a secret handbook, cited in the current Senate report, called the «KUBARK Counterintelligence Interrogation» manual with a new method of psychological torture that was, for the next thirty years, disseminated worldwide and within the U.S. intelligence community.

But as the Cold War wound down, Washington abandoned its torture techniques. After a death in custody, the CIA purged these coercive techniques from its interrogation canon and even concluded they were counterproductive. After decades of training Latin American militaries in torture, the Defense Department, under Secretary Dick Cheney, recalled all copies of extant manuals that detailed these illegal methods.

Twelve years later when the Bush administration opted for torture after 9/11, the sole institutional memory for these psychological methods lay in the military’s SERE training. Under contract with the CIA, the two psychologists, Mitchell and Jessen, reverse-engineered this defensive doctrine to produce the agency’s signature “enhanced interrogation techniques.”

Instead of outsourcing torture to allies as Washington had done during the Cold War, Bush’s policies required that CIA agents dirty their own hands with the tortures detailed in the Senate report—both the harsh physical methods (wall slamming, facial grab, stomach slap, rectal feeding), and psychological techniques dating back to the KUBARK manual (sleep deprivation, sensory disorientation, shackling for enforced standing).

Legal Protection for Torture:

Not only is the use of psychological torture embedded in the nation’s security agencies, it has been sanctioned by U.S. laws designed to prohibit this abuse. The reason for this contradiction is, once again, found in a troubled history ignored by the Senate report.

When the Cold War came to a close, Washington finally ratified the UN Convention Against Torture that banned the infliction of both psychological and physical pain. On the surface, the United States had apparently resolved the long-standing contradiction between its anti-torture principles and its torture practices.

But when President Clinton sent this UN Convention to Congress for ratification in 1994, he included language drafted six years earlier by the Reagan administration with four detailed diplomatic “reservations” focused on just one word in the treaty’s twenty-six printed pages: “mental.”

Instead of the UN Convention’s broad ban on “severe pain or suffering,” these U.S. reservations redefined psychological torture as “prolonged mental harm.” Since “prolonged” was vague (how long is prolonged?) and “harm” was ambiguous (what constitutes harm?), these reservations created enormous loopholes—just like the one Bush lawyers later opened by allowing harm up to “organ failure.”

This language and its loopholes have been repeated, verbatim down to the semicolons, in every U.S. law enacted to comply with the UN Convention—first in Section 2340 of the Federal Code; next in the War Crimes Act of 1996; and most recently in the Military Commissions Act of 2006.

Impunity in America:

As America now concludes a decade-long debate over impunity, the Senate report serves as a powerful corrective to years of CIA disinformation. Since CBS Television released those photos from Abu Ghraib prison back in 2004, the United States has been moving, almost imperceptibly, through a five-step process of impunity over torture quite similar to those experienced earlier by nations such as England, France, or the Philippines.

Step OneBad Apples. For a year after the Abu Ghraib exposé, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld blamed some bad apples by claiming the abuse was «perpetrated “by a small number of U.S. military.»

Step Two National Security. In the months following Obama’s inauguration, Republicans took us deep into the second stage by invoking national security, with Dick Cheney saying repeatedly the CIA’s methods «prevented the violent deaths of thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, of people.»

Step ThreeUnity. In April 2009, President Obama brought us to the third stage of impunity when he visited CIA headquarters and appealed for national unity, saying : «We’ve made some mistakes,» but it’s time to «acknowledge them and then move forward.»

Step FourExoneration.After the assassination of Osama bin Laden in May 2011, neo-conservatives formed an a cappella media chorus to claim, without any factual basis, that torture led us to Bin Laden. Within weeks, Attorney General Eric Holder ended the investigation of alleged CIA abuse without a criminal indictment, exonerating both the interrogators and their superiors.

Step FiveVindication.Since the tenth anniversary of 9/11 in September 2011, we have entered the fifth, final, and most fraught step toward impunity: vindication before the bar of History. Until now, the CIA’s defenders were winning this political battle—interrogation videos destroyed, books censored, indictments quashed, lawsuits dismissed, imagined intelligence coups celebrated, medals awarded, bonuses paid, and promotions secured.

But with the release of this Senate report and the media’s pursuit of the facts behind its obfuscations, the full story of abuse, fabrication, and dissimulation inside the CIA is finally starting to emerge. Instead of steely guardians willing to break laws, trample treaties, and dedicate their lives in defense of America, this report reveals these perpetrators as mendacious careerists willing to twist any truth to win a promotion or secure a lucrative contract.

Conclusion:

Despite its rich fund of hard-won detail, the Senate report has, at best, produced a neutral outcome, a draw in this political contest over impunity. Over the past forty years, there have been a half-dozen similar scandals over torture that have followed a familiar cycle—revelation, momentary sensation, vigorous rebuttal, and then oblivion. Unless we inscribe the lessons from this Senate report deeply into the country’s collective memory, then some future crisis might prompt another recourse to torture that will do even more damage to this country’s moral leadership.

Alfred McCoy is professor of History at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and the author of two recent books on this subject—»Torture and Impunity: The U.S. Doctrine of Coercive Interrogation» (Madison, 2012); and «A Question of Torture: CIA Interrogation from the Cold War to the War on Terror» (New York, 2006

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The CIA’s Phony Defense

HNN   December 12, 2014

When does an intelligence agency become worthless?Good question. A fair answer: when it stops speaking truth to power—or anyone else. I am sad to say the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) has crossed that line. One can understand their motives—protect friends and colleagues, a misplaced sense of mission, the influence of former Great Captains of espionage—but the present leadership of the CIA have permitted themselves to be swayed, abandoning the bedrock values the agency has always stood for (or said it did). Only two conclusions are possible: that the agency never had bedrock values, or that the present spy chieftains have been corrupted.

Director John O. Brennan told the assembled senators at his confirmation hearing that he understood what had been done in the CIA black prisons program was torture, that it was offensive to him—and he had even spoken out against it—that he stood for accountability, and would work to release the investigative report the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence had compiled on its inquiry into CIA torture. His nomination approved, Brennan took the oath of office as CIA director in March 2013. The Senate intelligence committee report had already been completed and only awaited CIA declassification approval.

As director John Brennan promptly took the opposite tack. He supervised preparation of a CIA rebuttal report and held back on declassification pending resolution of “issues” with the Senate investigators.

Completed in June 2013 the CIA rebuttal is an odd document, replete with statements that concede the validity of this or that criticism, then either rejecting the Senate’s evidence (which consists of the CIA’s own documents) or construing the error as inadvertent, well-meaning, or simply moot. From then to now, a period of a year and a half, Director Brennan sat on the Senate report, permitted subordinates to initiate a phony criminal complaint to the Justice Department against the Senate investigators, publicly took their side in publicizing the phony charges, and permitted former CIA officials and employees to make use of agency work product for a website designed to discredit the Senate report. He then prevailed upon the Obama White House to lobby the Senate committee to secure even broader discretion to delete material from the investigative report. The secrecy game has become a corrupt process. In my view we would not have the report out at all save that intelligence committee members had made clear they were ready to put out the full, unredacted text unless the CIA made public its declassified version.

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(Incidentally, one point is worth making about CIA’s actual declassification work: the figure “5 percent” was repeatedly used by agency persons, and commentators informed by the CIA, in connection with the amount of text that has been at issue in the secrecy fight. It is now clear from the released report that that claim was not true. More than that, it is also apparent the Senate committee had engaged in self-censorship, in substituting the word “redacted” for many titles, numbers, and passages in the original. The CIA then waded through the text, wildly deleting more names, dates and swathes of text. Some pages, especially in the sections that discuss particular CIA claims that torture had broken up particular terrorist plots, are mostly blank. The pattern makes it clear a primary CIA interest was to disguise the dates when numerous events occurred, in spite of the fact that any number of these episodes are matters of public record. The Senate committee’s self-censorship plus the CIA’s deletions total much more than the figure quoted. This raises the question why an investigative group should bother self-censoring if an executive agency is then going to massage the text. In my book The Family Jewels there is considerable detail on how the CIA massages its image by means of manipulating journalists and regulating what former employees can write about it as well.)

The conclusion is inevitable that this process was not about making available the Senate report, it has been about suppressing it. Now that the report has emerged the trick is to discredit it. Director Brennan has lent himself to that task as well. Brennan went to the extent of holding a press conference in the lobby of CIA’s main headquarters building. This is one of only a handful of press conferences ever given by a CIA director. At this event Mr. Brennan went so far as to laugh at a question asking what he might say in the interest of transparency, replying “I think there’s more than enough transparency that has happened over the last couple days. I think it’s over the top.” Thus Mr. Brennan characterized CIA’s fierce fight to quash this investigation as the opposite, an act of “transparency.”

Immediately afterwards the CIA director falsely construed an intelligence concept to argue there is no way to dispute what the CIA says its torture program had accomplished. He repeated that phrase in responding to another question later. Brennan had made the same point already in his opening remarks, saying “The cause and effect relationship between the use of [torture] and useful information subsequently provided by the detainee is, in my view, unknowable.” The repetition reveals this to be a major point in the CIA’s defense, so it is important to understand that this constitutes a false use of the concept of “knowable.” In intelligence practice, knowability refers to the proposition an analyst may have to predict things that areinherently not capable of being known. For example, during the high Cold War years, analysts were predicting the size of Russian nuclear arsenals five to ten years into the future where Soviet leaders’ decisions on manufacturing those weapons systems were still years away. That is “unknowable.”

There is nothing of this in the situation with respect to torture. Not only did the CIA program not meet the threshold for unknowable in principle, the concrete evidence in the form of CIA reporting cables shows, in case after case, detainees already beginning to provide information.

Thus the notion that torture had been necessary to unlock the stream of disclosure collapses in the face of evidence prisoners were already talking. More than that, Mr. Brennan also told his audience at this press conference that he believes effective, non-coercive methods of interrogation are available and “do not have a counterproductive impact on our national security and our international standing.”

So, in his next breath the CIA spy chief openly admits that the torture damaged the United States and that alternatives were available, yet he has just employed a falsified construction of an intelligence concept to argue, in the face of evidence, that no one can gainsay the decision to rely upon torture. “One of the most frustrating aspects of the [Senate] study,” Mr. Brennan said just moments later, “is that it conveys a broader view of the CIA and its officers as untrustworthy.” Really? What is the public supposed to think when the intelligence agency engages in shabby tactics to avoid the revelation of criminal behavior and then collaborates in attempts to discredit the critics, all the while misleading its overseers? Alluding to discussion of the torture report Director Brennan talked about “misrepresentations” circulating in public. Just who is it who is misrepresenting? At an earlier point in its checkered history another CIA director, William E. Colby, feared that the agency might be swept away if it did not make a sufficient effort to meet investigators halfway. We may have reached that very point today.

John Prados is a senior fellow of the National Security Archive in Washington, DC, and director of its CIA Documentation Project. He is the author of «William E. Colby: The Secret Wars of a Controversial CIA Spymaster.» For more on all these subjects visit www.http://johnprados.com.

 

 

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Why the Founding Fathers thought banning Torture Foundational to the US Constitution

By Juan Cole

Informed Comment  December 9, 2014

I have argued on many occasions that the language of patriotism and appeal to the Founding Fathers and the constitution must not be allowed to be appropriated by the political right wing in contemporary America, since for the most part right wing principles (privileging religion, exaltation of ‘whiteness’ over universal humanity, and preference for property rights over human rights) are diametrically opposed to the Enlightenment and Deist values of most of the framers of the Unites States.

We will likely hear these false appeals to an imaginary history a great deal with the release of the Senate report on CIA torture. It seems to me self-evident that most of the members of the Constitutional Convention would have voted to release the report and also would have been completely appalled at its contents.

The Bill of Rights of the US Constitution is full of prohibitions on torture, as part of a general 18th century Enlightenment turn against the practice. The French Encyclopedia and its authors had agitated in this direction.

Two types of torture were common during the lifetimes of the Founding Fathers. In France, the judiciary typically had arrestees tortured to make them confess their crime. This way of proceeding rather tilted the scales in the direction of conviction, but against justice. Pre-trial torture was abolished in France in 1780. But torture was still used after the conviction of the accused to make him identify his accomplices.

Thomas Jefferson excitedly wrote back to John Jay from Paris in 1788:

“On the 8th, a bed of justice was held at Versailles, wherein were enregistered the six ordinances which had been passed in Council, on the 1st of May, and which I now send you. . . . By these ordinances, 1, the criminal law is reformed . . . by substitution of an oath, instead of torture on the question préalable , which is used after condemnation, to make the prisoner discover his accomplices; (the torture abolished in 1780, was on the question préparatoire, previous to judgment, in order to make the prisoner accuse himself;) by allowing counsel to the prisoner for this defence; obligating the judges to specify in their judgments the offence for which he is condemned; and respiting execution a month, except in the case of sedition. This reformation is unquestionably good and within the ordinary legislative powers of the crown. That it should remain to be made at this day, proves that the monarch is the last person in his kingdom, who yields to the progress of philanthropy and civilization.”

Jefferson did not approve of torture of either sort.

The torture deployed by the US government in the Bush-Cheney era resembles that used in what the French called the “question préalable.” They were being asked to reveal accomplices and any further plots possibly being planned by those accomplices. The French crown would have argued before 1788 that for reasons of public security it was desirable to make the convicted criminal reveal his associates in crime, just as Bush-Cheney argued that the al-Qaeda murderers must be tortured into giving up confederates. But Jefferson was unpersuaded by such an argument. In fact, he felt that the king had gone on making it long past the time when rational persons were persuaded by it.

Bush-Cheney, in fact, look much more like pre-Enlightentment absolute monarchs in their theory of government. Louis XIV may not have said “I am the state,” but his prerogatives were vast, including arbitrary imprisonment and torture. Bush-Cheney, our very own sun kings, connived at creating a class of human beings to whom they could do as they pleased.

When the 5th amendment says of the accused person “nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself” the word “compelled” is referring to the previous practice of judicial torture of the accused. Accused persons who “take the fifth” are thus exercising a right not to be tortured by the government into confessing to something they may or may not have done.

Likewise, the 8th Amendment, “Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.” is intended to forbid post-sentencing torture.

The 8th Amendment was pushed for by Patrick Henry and George Mason precisely because they were afraid that the English move away from torture might be reversed by a Federal government that ruled in the manner of continental governments.

Patrick Henry wrote,

“What has distinguished our ancestors?–That they would not admit of tortures, or cruel and barbarous punishment. But Congress may introduce the practice of the civil law, in preference to that of the common law. They may introduce the practice of France, Spain, and Germany.”

It was objected in the debate over the Bill of Rights that it could be ignored. George Mason thought that was a stupid reason not to enact it:

“Mr. Nicholas: . . . But the gentleman says that, by this Constitution, they have power to make laws to define crimes and prescribe punishments; and that, consequently, we are not free from torture. . . . If we had no security against torture but our declaration of rights, we might be tortured to-morrow; for it has been repeatedly infringed and disregarded.

Mr. George Mason replied that the worthy gentleman was mistaken in his assertion that the bill of rights did not prohibit torture; for that one clause expressly provided that no man can give evidence against himself; and that the worthy gentleman must know that, in those countries where torture is used, evidence was extorted from the criminal himself. Another clause of the bill of rights provided that no cruel and unusual punishments shall be inflicted; therefore, torture was included in the prohibition.”

It was the insistence of Founding Fathers such as George Mason and Patrick Henry that resulted in the Bill of Rights being passed to constrain the otherwise absolute power of the Federal government. And one of their primary concerns was to abolish torture.

The 5th and the 8th amendments thus together forbid torture on the “question préparatoire” pre-trial confession under duress) and the question préalable (post-conviction torture).

That the Founding Fathers were against torture is not in question.

Fascists (that is what they are) who support torture will cavil. Is waterboarding torture? Is threatening to sodomize a man with a broomstick torture? Is menacing a prisoner with a pistol torture?

Patrick Henry’s discourse makes all this clear. He was concerned about the government doing anything to detract from the dignity of the English commoner, who had defied the Norman yoke and gained the right not to be coerced through pain into relinquishing liberties.

Fascists will argue that the Constitution does not apply to captured foreign prisoners of war, or that the prisoners were not even P.O.W.s, having been captured out of uniform.

But focusing on the category of the prisoner is contrary to the spirit of the founding fathers. Their question was, ‘what are the prerogatives of the state?’ And their answer was that the state does not have the prerogative to torture. It may not torture anyone, even a convicted murderer.

The framers of the Geneva Convention (to which the US is signatory) were, moreover, determined that all prisoners fall under some provision of international law. René Värk argues:

“the commentary to Article 45 (3) asserts that ‘a person of enemy nationality who is not entitled to prisoner-of-war status is, in principle, a civilian protected by the Fourth Convention, so that there are no gaps in protection’.*32 But, at the same time, it also observes that things are not always so straightforward in armed conflicts; for example, adversaries can have the same nationality, which renders the application of the Fourth Convention impossible, and there can arise numerous difficulties regarding the application of that convention. Thus, as the Fourth Convention is a safety net to persons who do not qualify for protection under the other three Geneva Conventions, Article 45 (3) serves yet again as a safety net for those who do not benefit from more favourable treatment in accordance with the Fourth Convention.”

Those who wish to create a category of persons who may be treated by the government with impunity are behaving as fascists like Franco did in the 1930s, who also typically created classes of persons to whom legal guarantees did not apply.

But if our discussion focuses on the Founding Fathers, it isn’t even necessary to look so closely at the Geneva Conventions.

Thomas Jefferson wrote in the Declaration of Independence, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”

The phrase “all men” means all persons of any nationality.

We know what the Founding Fathers believed. They believed in universal rights. And they believed in basic principles of human dignity. Above all, they did not think the government had the prerogative of behaving as it pleased. It doesn’t have the prerogative to torture

We know what the Founding Fathers believed. They believed in universal rights. And they believed in basic principles of human dignity. Above all, they did not think the government had the prerogative of behaving as it pleased. It doesn’t have the prerogative to torture.

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Mark MazzettiThe Way of the Knife: The CIA, a Secret Army, and a War at the Ends of the Earth

by Mark Lauchs 

New Books in Foreign Policy  August 8, 2014

Mark Mazzetti

Mark Mazzetti

[Cross-posted from New Books in Terrorism and Organized Crime] There are many movies 517SbF-1VcL._SL160_about evil CIA agents assassinating supposed enemies of the US. Those who saw the latest Captain America movie will have witnessed the plan by Hydra (a fascist faction within a secret agency presumably within the CIA) build floating gunships that can identify and eliminate those who pose a threat to national security. We are not there yet, but Mark Mazzetti‘s book The Way of the Knife: The CIA, a Secret Army, and a War at the Ends of the Earth (Penguin, 2013)  should give us some anxiety about the current technology used for “extra-judicial killings”. Mazzetti gives us the history of the drone wars – a term hated by the Air Force who note that the drones are piloted aircraft  albeit from a remote location – and their ability to be used for the elimination of… well, enemies of the US and its allies. Having said that, this is not a diatribe of opposition but a balanced and careful examination of history and political process. At the core of the book is a discussion of how the CIA and the US military are running parallel drone operations with different criteria and standards of care and success. Mazzetti’s book presents us with, what I found to be, a frightening insight into operations that are so common that they rarely rate a mention in the media. I highly recommend the book and suggest that anyone running a course on military ethics include it in their reading list. There is more than enough ethical controversy raised in the book to fill a semester of discussion.

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H-Diplo-LOGO

Comparto con mis lectores esta excelente reseña del más reciente libro del historiador estadounidense John Prados sobre el papel jugado por la CIA en la historia de Estados Unidos.

John Prados. The Family Jewels: The CIA, Secrecy, and Presidential Power. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2013.

Reviewed by Paul M. McGarr (University of Nottingham)
Published on H-Diplo (September, 2014)

PradosJohn Prados ends his latest book on the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with a call to action. In The Family Jewels: The CIA, Secrecy, and Presidential Power, Prados argues that the intelligence system in the United States is broken. Setting out a case for intelligence reform, this prominent commentator on the secret world declares that “There is much work to be done by presidents, legislators, officials and citizens. The time to start is now” (p. 333). From its inception in the late 1940s, Prados suggests, the CIA’s interrelationship with its executive patron in the White House has served the American people poorly. In short, the CIA is presented as a dysfunctional intelligence organization, tainted by habitual abuses of power, recurrent illegality, and an inveterate obsession with concealing, when not willfully misrepresenting, the less savory aspects of its institutional history. The extent to which intelligence agencies can, and should, be held publicly accountable for their actions within the framework of a democratic society forms the leitmotif of this account of the CIA and its “Family Jewels,” or most controversial intelligence operations.

Prados’s particular reading of the CIA and its operational history is unsurprising given his background as a leading advocate of government transparency and position as a senior fellow of the Washington DC-based National Security Archive, which for decades has been at the forefront of efforts to liberalize the disclosure of classified state records. Few scholars of intelligence, or indeed wider American foreign policy, will find much in the way of new evidence in this book. To a large extent Prados offers up a comprehensive and expertly crafted, if by now familiar synthesis, of the most controversial covert operations mounted by the CIA during the second half of the twentieth century and, more recently, in the context of an ongoing global war on terror. Prados provides detailed and engaging accounts of the original Family Jewels revelations, which were first aired in the New York Times in late 1974; the subsequent Year of Intelligence in 1975; the CIA’s involvement in political surveillance on American soil; and agency complicity in eavesdropping, extrajudicial detention, and assassination plots; all cover well worn historical ground.[1] Likewise, Prados’s examinations of the efforts undertaken by Langley to control the CIA’s public image and manipulate official and unofficial documentary representations of agency history have recently attracted scholarly attention.[2]

The value of this latest in a long and seemingly endless line of polemics focused on the CIA, resides in the questions that it poses to contemporary American policymakers and their broader political constituencies. Prados meticulously catalogues and forensically interrogates evidence that suggests the CIA has long played fast and loose with its own charter and the U.S. Constitution in support of White House policy. Moreover, the U.S. intelligence communities “tendency to replicate” legally and ethically questionable activities in pursuit of executive directives has, in Prados’s eyes, proved singularly counterproductive and is indicative of the “disturbing” possibility “that abuse fulfills some functional purpose” (p. 322).

Supporters of the Agency will undoubtedly take exception to the stridency with which Prados condemns the CIA’s institutional culture and operational performance. To be sure, mundane yet successful intelligence operations, for obvious reasons, tend to remain hidden from public view and, in any case, generate fewer media headlines and much less controversy than more spectacular “failures.” Indeed, a central plank of Prados’s thesis is that manifestations of “abuse” within the intelligence environment “fester” in the dark shadows of excessive and unwarranted secrecy (p. 323). Equally, rightly or wrongly, the agency has invariably been forced to assume the role of public fall guy whenever a capricious president encounters political difficulties as a consequence of intelligence “blowback.” In fact, to his credit, Prados is careful to emphasize the long-standing and pivotal role played by senior government officials outside the agency, including Henry Kissinger, Dick Cheney, and Donald Rumsfeld, in exerting pressure on the CIA to launch controversial and action-orientated operations. Most notably, Dick Cheney is castigated as “the leading ringmaster” behind a litany of intelligence impropriety stretching back over thirty years, originating in efforts to hamstring the Rockefeller Commission on intelligence in the mid-1970s, and continuing through post-9/11 furors involving extraordinary rendition, enhanced interrogation, and NSA eavesdropping (p. 323). Democrat politicians come in for similar censure. In electing not to pursue Bush administration officials and CIA officers for acts of allegedly illegality, yet prosecuting CIA whistleblowers, such as John Kiriakou, and expanding the use of drone strikes across Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia, Barak Obama has perpetuated “actions [that] have damaged America’s real interests” (p. 326).

ciaThe book makes its biggest impact by deftly weaving a litany of historic intelligence abuses into the narrative of contemporary debates surrounding tensions between the preservation of national security on the one hand, and the maintenance on civil liberties and individual freedoms on the other. Prados constructs a strong case for interpreting Family Jewel abuses not as unfortunate historical glitches, but instead as components in an endemic pattern of executive misconduct, the roots of which stretch back to the formation of the postwar national security state. In this sense, perhaps a common thread can be discerned, as Prados claims, between the imprisonment and maltreatment of Yuri Nosenko, a KGB defector to United States in the 1960s, and the secret prisons, extraordinary renditions, enhanced interrogation practices employed by the CIA after 2001. The National Security Agency (NSA) communication interception programs recently revealed by Edward Snowden could be seen to have antecedents in CIA and NSA surveillance operations mounted inside the United States during the 1950s and 1960s, such as CHAOS, SHAMROCK and MINARET. The current deployment of drones armed with Hellfire missiles in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Somalia, and Yemen to target foreign nationals deemed threats to the United States, contain faint echoes of earlier assassination plots hatched against Fidel Castro, Patrice Lumumba, and Rafael Trujillo. For sure, as Prados is at pains to point out, “the issue of abuse in intelligence activities” has hardly receded since the 1970s (p. 3). In fact, it has mushroomed in the aftermath of 9/11.

Prados argues that this abuse thrives amid secrecy and, in turn, corrodes public trust and confidence in the important work performed by intelligence agencies. Prados’s antidote to the malaise afflicting America’s intelligence community is a large dose of transparency. Noting that “over the years Langley has worked very hard to cloak its daggers” (p. 190), Prados reopens the long-standing debate about how open and accountable intelligence agencies can be in a liberal democracy while, at the same time, safeguarding the anonymity of sources and methods and preserving operational effectiveness. Unsurprisingly, perhaps, Prados’s answer is, quite a lot more open than at present. Indeed, Prados insists that disclosure of questionable intelligence practices is not the problem. Investigate journalists from Seymour Hersh, the reporter responsible for uncovering the original Family Jewels, to Dana Priest, the Washington Poststaffer who broke the post-9/11 “Top Secret America” story, are lauded for performing a valuable public service. However, continued vigilance on the part of the Fourth Estate, Prados concludes, can only be of limited utility in holding governments and intelligence services to account. Press exposes and the disclosures of whistle-blowers from Philip Agee to Edward Snowden, have, after all, failed to stem a recurring pattern of intelligence scandals. The voting public and political classes have notably short memories. In Prados’s estimation, the historical pattern of questionable practices and the efforts to evade accountability exhibited by America’s spymasters are suggestive of an urgent need to reform the current system of intelligence oversight.

Lambasting existing regulatory mechanisms as not fit for the purpose, Prados bemoans that congressional committees tasked with scrutinizing the CIA’s work rely heavily on agency disclosure, are understaffed, and are subject to powerful political and legal pressures. In their place, Prados proposes an oversight system centered upon regular public reviews of intelligence agencies. Such a radical prescription for reform raises a number questions. Is a public role in intelligence oversight practical? How would the security implications inherent in such a system be overcome? Would public intelligence hearings turn into media circuses reminiscent of the Church and Pike Committee enquiries of the mid-1970s, or the Iran-Contra inquests a decade later? Would, in short, such a system of oversight generate more heat than light?

John Prados has produced an expertly crafted and thought-provoking account of the faultiness between the United States’s intelligence community and its clients in the White House. He makes a strong case for intelligence reform. Prados’s prescriptions for change, however, are less persuasive. Ultimately, it is by challenging the American public to engage more meaningfully with complex and contentious debates within the intelligence sphere that encompass issues of ethics, civil liberties, and national security, that Prados’ book promises to make its greatest mark.

Notes

[1]. Some of the best accounts that address CIA covert action include Roy Godson, Dirty Tricks or Trump Cards: US Covert Action and Counterintelligence(Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 1996); Gregory Treverton, Covert Action: The Limits of Intervention in the Postwar World (New York: Basic Books, 1987); and John Prados, Safe for Democracy: The Secret Wars of the CIA (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2006).

[2]. See, Paul McGarr and Matthew Jones, “‘Real Substance, Not Just Symbolism’? The CIA and the Representation of Covert Operations in the Foreign Relations of the United States Series,” in Intelligence Studies in Britain and the US: Historiography since 1945, ed. Christopher R. Moran and Christopher J. Murphy (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2013), 65-89; and Christopher R. Moran, ‘The Last Assignment: David Atlee Phillips and the Birth of CIA Public Relations,” International History Review 35, no. 2 (2013): 337-355.

Printable Version: http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=41209

Citation: Paul M. McGarr. Review of Prados, John, The Family Jewels: The CIA, Secrecy, and Presidential Power. H-Diplo, H-Net Reviews. September, 2014.
URL: http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=41209

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Why Do We Have an Illegal Immigration Problem from Central America? We Should Know. We Helped Create It.

William Schell, Jr.

HNN   July 25, 2014

By now we have all heard and read of the expediential growth in Central American refugees fleeing to the US which has evolved, almost overnight, into a form of human trafficking. Why would a 15 year old girl set off on her own enduring unspeakable hardship and abuse to get to America? Why would families sell everything in order to pay people smugglers to bribe border guards and slip them past checkpoints to the US border where they often simply turn themselves in?

First the Push factors–the collapse of government and the rule of law in Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador and the rise of gang rule. Gangs seize children with family in the US and hold them until the relatives pay up. In addition to this ransom, families must pay smuggling charges.

And the Pull factors—children wish to join parents while smugglers (who charge for their services) put out the word that the US allows illegal migrant children to stay if they make it across the border and turn themselves in.

The current US policy—for which the Obama Administration is taking the heat—has bi-partisan origins in the 2007 immigration reform law originally backed by many conservatives including Sen. John McCain of Arizona.  But now McCain and other Republicans, pressured by Tea Party radicals, oppose the very law they called for and created.

Shortly after the passage of the law, the plight of these migrant children was told in HBO’s «Which Way Home» (2009) directed by Rebecca Cammisa. The film «followed several unaccompanied child migrants as they journey through Mexico en route to the U.S. on a freight train they call «The Beast.» It tracks the stories of children like Olga and Freddy, nine-year-old Hondurans who are desperately trying to reach their families in Minnesota, and Jose, a ten-year-old El Salvadoran who has been abandoned by smugglers and ends up alone in a Mexican detention center, and focuses on Kevin, a canny, streetwise 14-year-old Honduran, whose mother hopes that he will reach New York City and send money back to his family. These are stories of hope and courage, disappointment and sorrow.”

«Which Way Home» is a must see for anyone who wants to understand the current crisis.  The child immigrant problem is rooted in US Cold War Policies that fueled civil wars in Central America which displaced thousands in Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador.  Illegal Central Americans then came to the US where there arose social networks that soon evolved into MS-13, the 18th Street Gang, and other street gangs that financed themselves selling drugs. The US law enforcement then acted to arrest and deport gang members, thus turning what had been local-regional gangs into transnational criminal organizations which now traffic humans as well as drugs.

Thus the very policy being proposed by congressional conservatives to “solve” the problem (deportation) was/is a major contributor to its creation.

According to Central American migration researcher, David Bacon “media coverage focuses on gang violence in Central America, as though it was spontaneous and unrelated to a history of U.S.-promoted wars and a policy of mass deportations. In truth, the United States’ meddling foreign policy and a history of the U.S.’s own harsh immigration measures are responsible for much of the pressure causing this flow of people from Central America.”

But while almost all of the reporting and commentary on the immigration crisis has focused on the now, the roots of that now lie in the informal Central American empire created in the early 20th century by American investment in plantations, ports and railroads. The classic example is the United Fruit Company known as la frutera which dominated Guatemala. When nationalists sought greater control of their own affairs, American muscular Dollar Diplomacy removed them and supported compliant dictators backed by US trained “national guards.” This is how the Somoza “dynasty” of Nicaragua came to power.

After WWII, as Cold War anti-communism came to define US foreign policy, Jacobo Arbenz came to power in Guatemala.  When in 1954 Arbenz’s reformist, socialist government took and paid for United Fruit Co. properties to enact a land reform, the CIA overthrew him in what was dubbed “Operation Success” (planned and executed by E Howard Hunt of Watergate infamy). It should come as no surprise that major UFC stockholders were John Foster and Allen Dulles, respectively US Sec. of State and head of the CIA.

Fearing the spread of communism, Washington trained Central American officers at the School of the Americas at Fort Benning, Georgia, to protect elite interests.  Upon return to their home countries, they organized the paramilitary “death squads.” In El Salvador there was La Mano Blanca (the white hand) and ORDEN.  In Guatemala peasants were equated with Communists and simply eliminated by the thousands. All of this with Washington’s tacit acceptance, if not outright support.

When in 1972 in Nicaragua an earthquake destroyed nearly 90% of the capital of Managua the ruling Somoza family, America’s major regional ally, siphoned off relief money and sold plasma and other medical relief supplies on the black market, provoking a general uprising supported by even the upper classes. The revolution was followed by fair elections that brought a mixed government to power dominated by the Communist Sandinistas just as Ronald Reagan became president.  To depose the Sandinistas Reagan funded the CONTRAS, composed of former Somoza military members.

In 1983, the U.S. Congress prohibited funding the Contras. But the Reagan administration continued to do so covertly and illegally by selling arms to Iran and channeling the proceeds to the Contras (the Iran–Contra affair). Despite Washington’s attempt to overthrow Nicaragua’s Sandinista government, in 1990 it held free and fair elections. Proof? The Sandinistas lost to an opposition coalition led by Violeta Chamorro.

But Reagan’s effort to depose the Sandinista government spread war throughout Central America—especially El Salvador where ORDEN’s leader and presidential candidate, Roberto D’Aubuisson, arranged the assassination of Archbishop Oscar Romero after Romero called on the military to «Stop the repression! No soldier is obliged to obey an order contrary to the law of God.»

When the Cold War ended, the damage done by Washington’s policies led to rapacious dictatorships that wrecked the governments and economies of Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador opening the way for the rise of American-linked gang rule by extortion from which the people fled.

And so we return to where we started. Why do we have an illegal immigration problem? We are merely reaping what we have sown.

William Schell, Jr. is a professor of history at Murray State University in Kentucky.

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arbannsmU.S. Covert Intervention in Chile: Planning to Block Allende Began Long before September 1970 Election

National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 470

May 23, 2014

For more information contact:
Peter Kornbluh 202/374-7281 or peter.kornbluh@gmail.com

 

battleOfChileWashington, DC, May 23, 2014 – Covert U.S. planning to block the democratic election of Salvador Allende in Chile began weeks before his September 4, 1970, victory, according to just declassified minutes of an August 19, 1970, meeting of the high-level interagency committee known as the Special Review Group, chaired by National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger. «Kissinger asked that the plan be as precise as possible and include what orders would be given September 5, to whom, and in what way,» as the summary recorded Kissinger’s instructions to CIA Director Richard Helms. «Kissinger said we should present to the President an action plan to prevent [the Chilean Congress from ratifying] an Allende victory…and noted that the President may decide to move even if we do not recommend it.»

The document is one of a compendium of some 366 records released by the State Department as part of its Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS) series. The much-delayed collection, titled «Chile: 1969-1973,» addresses Richard Nixon’s and Kissinger’s efforts to destabilize the democratically elected Socialist government of Salvador Allende, and the U.S.-supported coup that brought General Augusto Pinochet to power in 1973. The controversial volume was edited by two former officials of the State Department’s Office of the Historian, James Siekmeier and James McElveen.

«This collection represents a substantive step forward in opening the historical record on U.S. intervention in Chile,» said Peter Kornbluh, who directs the Chile documentation project at the National Security Archive, and is the author of The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability. Kornbluh called on the State Department to continue to pursue the declassification of all relevant records on the U.S. role in Chile, including all records of CIA contacts with the Chilean military leading up to the September 11, 1973, coup; CIA funding for the truckers’ strike as part of the «destabilization» campaign, and CIA intelligence on the executions of two U.S. citizens in the wake of the military takeover, Charles Horman and Frank Teruggi.

The FRUS series is scheduled to release an electronic supplement of additional records in the fall, and to publish another volume,Chile, 1973-1976, next year. «The next volume could advance the historical record on CIA support for the Chilean secret police, DINA, CIA knowledge of Operation Condor, and Pinochet’s act of international terrorism in Washington D.C. that killed Orlando Letelier and Ronni Karpen Moffitt,» Kornbluh suggested.

In the aftermath of General Augusto Pinochet’s arrest in October 1998, the National Security Archive, along with victims of the Pinochet regime, led a campaign to press the Clinton administration to declassify the still-secret documents on Chile, the coup and the repression that followed. Some 23,000 NSC, State Department, Defense Department and CIA records were released. Some of those have been included in the new FRUS collection which contains a set of meeting memoranda of the «40 Committee» — an interagency group chaired by Henry Kissinger which oversaw covert operations in Chile, as well as dozens of formerly secret cables, including CIA communications.

The release of the records comes amidst renewed debate over the CIA role in supporting the military coup in Chile. The forthcoming issue of Foreign Affairs contains an article by former CIA operative Jack Devine, «What Really Happened in Chile: the CIA, the Coup Against Allende, and the Rise of Pinochet,» which reveals that intelligence he obtained on September 9, 1973, alerted President Nixon in advance to the timing of the coup. «I sent CIA headquarters in Langley a special type of top-secret cable known as a CRITIC, which takes priority over all other cables and goes directly to the highest levels of government. President Richard Nixon and other top U.S. policymakers received it immediately. ‘A coup attempt will be initiated on 11 September,’ the cable read.»

Nevertheless, Devine asserts that the CIA «did not plot with the Chilean military to overthrow Allende in 1973.»

However, according to a transcript of the first phone conversation between Kissinger and Nixon following the coup, when the President asked if «our hand» showed in the coup, Kissinger explained that «we didn’t do it,» in terms of direct participation in the military actions: «I mean we helped them,» Kissinger continued. «[deleted word] created the conditions as great as possible.»

The Kissinger-Nixon transcript is reproduced in the 2013 edition of The Pinochet File.

Read the FRUS volume here

 

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