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Posts Tagged ‘American exceptionalism’

John Dower es un destacado historiador estadounidense miembro emérito del Departamento de Historia del Massachussets Institute of Technology. En su larga y fructífera carrera,  el Dr. Dower  se ha destacado como analista de la historia japonesa y de las relaciones exteriores de Estados Unidos. El análisis de la guerra ha ocupado una parte importante de su trabajo académico. Su libro Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (1999) ganó varios premios prestigiosos, entre ellos, el Pulitzer y el Bancroft. Es autor, además, de War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (1986), Japan in War and Peace: Selected Essays (1994),  Cultures of War: Pearl Harbor/Hiroshima/9-11/Iraq (2010), and Ways of Forgetting, Ways of Remembering: Japan in the Modern World (2012). 

En el siguiente artículo publicado en TomDispatch, Dower enfoca cómo a lo largo de su historia, los estadounidenses han, no sólo recordado, sino también olvidado las guerras en las que han participado para preservar así su auto-representación de víctimas, tema que discute a profundidad en su último libro The Violent American Century: War and Terror Since World War Two (2018).


The last near-century of American dominance was extraordinarily violent |  Business Standard News

Pérdida de memoria en el jardín de la violencia

JOHN DOWER

TomDisptach  30 de julio de 2021

Hace algunos años, un artículo periodístico atribuyó a un visitante europeo la irónica observación de que los estadounidenses son encantadores porque tienen una memoria muy corta. Cuando se trata de las guerras de la nación, no estaba del todo incorrecto. Los estadounidenses abrazan las historias militares del tipo heroico «banda de hermanos [estadounidenses]», especialmente en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Poseen un apetito aparentemente ilimitado por los recuentos de la Guerra Civil, de lejos el conflicto más devastador del país en lo que respecta a las muertes.

Ciertos momentos históricos traumáticos como «el Álamo» y «Pearl Harbor» se han convertido en palabras clave —casi dispositivos mnemotécnicos— para reforzar el recuerdo de la victimización estadounidense a manos de antagonistas nefastos. Thomas Jefferson y sus pares en realidad establecieron la línea de base para esto en el documento fundacional de la nación, la Declaración de Independencia, que consagra el recuerdo de «los despiadados salvajes indios», una demonización santurrona que resultó ser repetitiva para una sucesión de enemigos percibidos más tarde. «11 de septiembre» ha ocupado su lugar en esta invocación profundamente arraigada de la inocencia violada, con una intensidad que raya en la histeria.

John W. Dower | The New Press

John Dower

Esa «conciencia de víctima» no es, por supuesto, única de los estadounidenses. En Japón después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, esta frase —higaisha ishiki  en japonés— se convirtió en el centro de las críticas de izquierda a los conservadores que se obsesionaron con los muertos de guerra de su país y parecían incapaces de reconocer cuán gravemente el Japón imperial había victimizado a otros, millones de chinos y cientos de miles de coreanos. Cuando los actuales miembros del gabinete japonés visitan el Santuario Yasukuni, donde se venera a los soldados y marineros fallecidos del emperador, están alimentando la conciencia de las víctimas y son duramente criticados por hacerlo por el mundo exterior, incluidos los medios de comunicación estadounidenses.

En todo el mundo,  los días y los monumentos conmemorativos de guerra garantizan la preservación de ese recuerdo selectivo. Mi estado natal de Massachusetts también hace esto hasta el día de hoy al enarbolar la bandera «POW-MIA» en blanco y negro de la Guerra de Vietnam en varios lugares públicos, incluido Fenway Park, hogar de los Medias Rojas de Boston, todavía afligidos por los hombres que luchaban que fueron capturados o desaparecieron en acción y nunca regresaron a casa.

De una forma u otra, los nacionalismos populistas de hoy son manifestaciones de la aguda conciencia de víctima. Aún así, la forma estadounidense de recordar y olvidar sus guerras es distintiva por varias razones. Geográficamente, la nación es mucho más segura que otros países. Fue la única entre las principales potencias que escapó de la devastación en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y ha sido inigualable en riqueza y poder desde entonces. A pesar del pánico por las amenazas comunistas en el pasado y las amenazas islamistas y norcoreanas en el presente, Estados Unidos nunca ha estado seriamente en peligro por fuerzas externas. Aparte de la Guerra Civil, sus muertes relacionadas con la guerra han sido trágicas, pero notablemente más bajas que las cifras de muertes militares y civiles de otras naciones, invariablemente incluidos los adversarios de Estados Unidos.

Captura de Pantalla 2021-08-15 a la(s) 00.31.14

Soldados filipinos, 1899.

La asimetría en los costos humanos de los conflictos que involucran a las fuerzas estadounidenses ha sido el patrón desde la aniquilación de los amerindios y la conquista estadounidense de Filipinas entre 1899 y 1902. La Oficina del Historiador del Departamento de Estado cifra el número de muertos en esta última guerra en «más de 4.200 combatientes estadounidenses y más de 20.000 filipinos», y procede a añadir que «hasta 200.000 civiles filipinos murieron de violencia, hambruna y enfermedades». (Entre otras causas precipitantes de esas muertes de no combatientes, está  la matanza por tropas estadounidense de búfalos de agua de los que dependían los agricultores para producir sus cultivos). Trabajos académicos recientes eleven el número muertes de civiles filipinos.

 

La misma asimetría mórbida caracteriza las muertes relacionadas con la guerra en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la Guerra de Corea, la Guerra de Vietnam, la Guerra del Golfo de 1991 y las invasiones y ocupaciones de Afganistán e Irak después del 11 de septiembre de 2001.

Bombardeo terrorista de la Segunda Guerra Mundial a Corea y Vietnam al 9/11

Si bien es natural que las personas y las naciones se centran en su propio sacrificio y sufrimiento en lugar de en la muerte y la destrucción que ellos mismos infligen, en el caso de los Estados Unidos ese astigmatismo cognitivo está relegado por el sentido permanente del país de ser excepcional, no sólo en el poder sino también en la virtud. En apoyo al «excepcionalismo estadounidense», es un artículo de fe que los valores más altos de la civilización occidental y judeocristiana guían la conducta de la nación, a lo que los estadounidenses agregan el apoyo supuestamente único de su país a la democracia, el respeto por todos y cada uno de los individuos y la defensa incondicional de un orden internacional «basado en reglas».

Tal autocomplacencia requiere y refuerza la memoria selectiva. «Terror», por ejemplo, se ha convertido en una palabra aplicada a los demás, nunca a uno mismo. Y sin embargo, durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, los planificadores de bombardeos estratégicos estadounidenses y británicos consideraron explícitamente su bombardeo de bombas incendiadas contra ciudades enemigas como bombardeos terroristas, e identificaron la destrucción de la moral de los no combatientes en territorio enemigo como necesaria y moralmente aceptable. Poco después de la devastación aliada de la ciudad alemana de Dresde en febrero de 1945, Winston Churchill, cuyo busto circula dentro y fuera de la Oficina Oval presidencial en Washington, se refirió  al «bombardeo de ciudades alemanas simplemente por el bien de aumentar el terror, aunque bajo otros pretextos».

Captura de Pantalla 2021-08-09 a la(s) 08.59.10

Hiroshima, setiembre de 1945.

En la guerra contra Japón, las fuerzas aéreas estadounidenses adoptaron esta práctica con una venganza casi alegre, pulverizando 64 ciudades  antes de los bombardeos atómicos de Hiroshima y Nagasaki en agosto de 1945. Sin embargo, cuando los 19 secuestradores de al-Qaeda bombardearon el World Trade Center y el Pentágono en 2001, el «bombardeo terrorista» destinado a destruir la moral se desprendió de este precedente angloamericano y quedó relegado a «terroristas no estatales». Al mismo tiempo, se declaró que atacar a civiles inocentes era una atrocidad totalmente contraria a los valores «occidentales» civilizados y una prueba prima facie del salvajismo inherente al Islam.

La santificación del espacio que ocupaba el destruido World Trade Center como «Zona Cero» —un término previamente asociado con las explosiones nucleares en general e Hiroshima en particular— reforzó esta hábil manipulación de la memoria. Pocas o ninguna figura pública estadounidense reconoció o le importó que esta nomenclatura gráfica se apropiaba de Hiroshima, cuyo gobierno de la ciudad sitúa el número de víctimas mortales del bombardeo atómico «a finales de diciembre de 1945, cuando los efectos agudos del envenenamiento por radiación habían disminuido en gran medida», en alrededor de 140.000. (El número estimado de muertos en Nagasaki es de 60.000 a 70.000). El contexto de esos dos ataques —y de todas las bombas incendiadas de ciudades alemanas y japonesas que les precedieron— obviamente difiere en gran medida del terrorismo no estatal y de los atentados suicidas con bombas infligidos por los terroristas de hoy.  No obstante, «Hiroshima» sigue siendo el símbolo más revelador y preocupante de los bombardeos terroristas en los tiempos modernos, a pesar de la eficacia con la que, para las generaciones presentes y futuras, la retórica de la «Zona Cero» posterior al 9/11 alteró el panorama de la memoria y ahora connota la victimización estadounidense.

Dong Xoai June 1965

Civiles vietnamitas, Dong Xoai, junio de 1965

La memoria corta también ha borrado casi todos los recuerdos estadounidenses de la extensión estadounidense de los bombardeos terroristas a Corea e Indochina. Poco después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el United States Strategic Bombing Survey calculó  que las fuerzas aéreas angloamericanas en el teatro europeo habían lanzado 2,7 millones de toneladas de bombas, de las cuales 1,36 millones de toneladas apuntaron a Alemania. En el teatro del Pacífico, el tonelaje total caído por los aviones aliados fue de 656.400, de los cuales el 24% (160.800 toneladas) se usó en islas de origen de Japón. De estas últimas, 104.000 toneladas «se dirigieron a 66 zonas urbanas». Impactante en ese momento, en retrospectiva, estas cifras han llegado a parecer modestas en comparación con el tonelaje de explosivos que las fuerzas estadounidenses descargaron en Corea y más tarde en Vietnam, Camboya y Laos.

La historia oficial de la guerra aérea en Corea (The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953)  registra que las fuerzas aéreas de las Naciones Unidas lideradas por Estados Unidos volaron más de un millón de incursiones y, en total, dispararon un total de 698.000 toneladas de artillería contra el enemigo. En su libro de memorias de 1965  Mission with LeMay, el general Curtis LeMay, que dirigió el bombardeo estratégico tanto de Japón como de Corea, señaló: «Quemamos casi todas las ciudades de Corea del Norte y Corea del  Sur… Matamos a más de un millón de civiles coreanos y expulsamos a varios millones más de sus hogares, con las inevitables tragedias adicionales que en consecuencia se producirían».

Otras fuentes sitúan el número estimado de civiles muertos en la Guerra de Corea hasta  tres millones, o posiblemente incluso más. Dean Rusk, un partidario de la guerra que luego se desempeñó como secretario de Estado,  recordó que Estados Unidos bombardeó «todo lo que se movía en Corea del Norte, cada ladrillo de pie encima de otro». En medio de esta «guerra limitada», los funcionarios estadounidenses también se cuidaron de dejar claro en varias ocasiones que no habían descartado  el uso de armas nucleares. Esto incluso implicó ataques nucleares simulados en Corea del Norte por B-29 que operaban desde Okinawa en una operación de 1951 con nombre en código Hudson Harbor.

En Indochina, como en la Guerra de Corea, apuntar a «todo lo que se movía» era prácticamente un mantra entre las fuerzas combatientes estadounidenses, una especie de contraseña que legitimaba la matanza indiscriminada. La historia reciente de la guerra de Vietnam, extensamente investigada por Nick Turse, por ejemplo, toma su título de una orden militar para «matar a cualquier cosa que se mueva». Los documentos publicados por los National Archives en 2004 incluyen una transcripción de una conversación telefónica de 1970 en la que Henry Kissinger  transmitió  las órdenes del presidente Richard Nixon de lanzar «una campaña masiva de bombardeos en Camboya». Cualquier cosa que vuele sobre cualquier cosa que se mueva».

My_Lai_massacre

Masacre de My Lai

En Laos, entre 1964 y 1973, la CIA ayudó a dirigir el bombardeo aéreo per cápita más pesado de la historia, desatando más de dos millones de toneladas de artefactos en el transcurso de 580.000 bombardeos, lo que equivale a un avión cargado de bombas cada ocho minutos durante aproximadamente una década completa. Esto incluía alrededor de 270 millones de bombas de racimo. Aproximadamente el 10% de la población total de Laos fue asesinada. A pesar de los efectos devastadores de este ataque, unos 80 millones de las bombas de racimo lanzadas no detonaron, dejando el país devastado plagado de mortíferos artefactos explosivos sin detonar hasta el día de hoy.

La carga útil de las bombas descargadas en Vietnam, Camboya y Laos entre mediados de la década de 1960 y 1973 se calcula comúnmente que fue de entre siete y ocho millones de toneladas, más de 40 veces el tonelaje lanzado sobre las islas japonesas en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Las estimaciones del total de muertes varían, pero todas son extremadamente altas. En un artículo del Washington Post  en 2012, John Tirman  señaló  que «según varias estimaciones académicas, las muertes de militares y civiles vietnamitas oscilaron entre 1,5 millones y 3,8 millones, con la campaña liderada por Estados Unidos en Camboya resultando en 600.000 a 800.000 muertes, y la mortalidad de la guerra laosiana estimada en alrededor de 1 millón».

Civil War Casualties | American Battlefield Trust

Estadounidenses muertos en batalla

En el lado estadounidense, el Departamento de Asuntos de Veteranos sitúa las muertes en batalla en la Guerra de Corea en 33.739. A partir del Día de los Caídos de 2015, el largo muro del profundamente conmovedor Monumento a los Veteranos de Vietnam en Washington estaba inscrito con los nombres de  58.307  militares estadounidenses asesinados entre 1957 y 1975, la gran mayoría de ellos a partir de 1965. Esto incluye aproximadamente  1.200 hombres  listados como desaparecidos (MIA, POW, etc.), los hombres de combate perdidos cuya bandera de recuerdo todavía ondea sobre Fenway Park.

Corea del Norte y el espejo agrietado de la guerra nuclear

Hoy en día, los estadounidenses generalmente recuerdan vagamente a Vietnam, y Camboya y Laos no lo recuerdan en absoluto. (La etiqueta inexacta «Guerra de Vietnam» aceleró este último borrado.) La Guerra de Corea también ha sido llamada «la guerra olvidada», aunque un monumento a los veteranos en Washington, D.C., finalmente se le dedicó en 1995, 42 años después del armisticio que suspendió el conflicto. Por el contrario, los coreanos no lo han olvidado. Esto es especialmente cierto en Corea del Norte, donde la enorme muerte y destrucción sufrida entre 1950 y 1953 se mantiene viva a través de interminables iteraciones oficiales de recuerdo, y esto, a su vez, se combina con una implacable campaña de propaganda que llama la atención sobre la Guerra Fría y la intimidación nuclear estadounidense posterior a la Guerra Fría. Este intenso ejercicio de recordar en lugar de olvidar explica en gran medida el actual ruido de sables nucleares del líder de Corea del Norte, Kim Jong-un.

Con sólo un ligero tramo de imaginación, es posible ver imágenes de espejo agrietadas en el comportamiento nuclear y la política arriesgada de los presidentes estadounidenses y el liderazgo dinástico dictatorial de Corea del Norte. Lo que refleja este espejo desconcertante es una posible locura, o locura fingida, junto con un posible conflicto nuclear, accidental o de otro tipo.

North Korea leader Kim Jong Un could have 60 nuclear weapons: South Korea  minister estimates atomic bomb count - CBS News

Kim Jong-un

Para los estadounidenses y gran parte del resto del mundo, Kim Jong-un parece irracional, incluso seriamente desquiciado. (Simplemente combine su nombre con «loco» en una búsqueda en Google). Sin embargo, al agitar su minúsculo carcaj nuclear, en realidad se está uniendo al juego de larga data de la «disuasión nuclear» y practicando lo que se conoce entre los estrategas estadounidenses como la «teoría del loco». Este último término se asocia más famosamente  con Richard Nixon y Henry Kissinger durante la Guerra de Vietnam, pero en realidad está más o menos incrustado en los planes de juego nuclear de Estados Unidos. Como se rearticula en «Essentials of Post-Cold War Deterrence«, un  documento secreto de política redactado por un subcomité en el Comando Estratégico de Estados Unidos en 1995 (cuatro años después de la desaparición de la Unión Soviética), la teoría del loco postula que la esencia de la disuasión nuclear efectiva es inducir «miedo» y «terror» en la mente de un adversario, para lo cual «duele retratarnos a nosotros mismos como demasiado racionales y de cabeza fría».

 

Cuando Kim Jong-un juega a este juego, se le ridiculiza y se teme que sea verdaderamente demente. Cuando son practicados por sus propios líderes y el sacerdocio nuclear, los estadounidenses han sido condicionados a ver a los actores racionales en su mejor momento.

El terror, al parecer, en el siglo XXI, como en el XX, está en el ojo del espectador.

 Traducción de Norberto Barreto Velázquez

 

 

 

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Did the Founding Fathers Believe In American Exceptionalism?

 by Sheldon Stern 

HNN August 14, 2015

In a recent critique of the highly controversial 2015 College Board APUSH revision, Stanley Kurtz of the Ethics and Public Policy Center, faulted the document for its failure to highlight “American exceptionalism,” which he defined as “America’s sense of principled mission, its unique blending of religious and democratic commitment, its characteristic emphasis on local government, the high cultural esteem in which economic enterprise is held, and America’s distinctive respect for individual liberty.”[1]

The idea of “American exceptionalism” has, in fact, become a political hot potato—reflexively embraced on the right and passionately denounced on the left. Perhaps we can gain some valuable insight into the historical merits of this concept by turning to one of the most underappreciated, but arguably the most brilliant of the Revolutionary generation, John Adams.

Adams was confident that the new United States was on the cusp of a brilliant future. But he did not believe that Americans, as a people, were exempt from the flaws and faults of other nations and peoples. “There is no special Providence for Americans … and their nature is the same with that of others. …We are not a chosen people … and we must and we shall go the way of all earth.” Americans, he warned, were not immune to the hubris, greed, and foolishness of the rest of mankind.[2]  He was convinced that negative rather than benign forces had largely shaped—and would continue to shape—human political behavior; and Americans were no exception.

In fact, Adams shared the prevailing view of human nature in the late 18th century: people, especially in the political sphere, were believed to be driven by irrational motives and corrupt passions. Vanity, prejudice and the desire for personal gain were the real motive forces in political behavior. Human beings would therefore appear unlikely to construct an orderly and stable political system.  The framers of the Constitution embraced this view of human nature and endeavored to construct a system to neutralize the problem.  The essence of their solution was to channel this inherently flawed human material into productive ends by balancing harmful things against one another.  The theory of counterpoise (stressed by James Madison in the Federalist Papers) argued that negative human traits could be harnessed and counterbalanced to create a workable and mutually beneficial system. This is the philosophical principle behind the practical implementation of checks and balances in the Constitution.

Americans, Adams believed, were neither unique nor exceptional. Local and representative political institutions, religious freedom and diversity, and a respect for personal liberty and entrepreneurship did not spring full blown from a special gift of (or to) the American people, but were instead essentially the product of an unanticipated set of historical circumstances in which the fledgling nation originated and developed: its remoteness from central political and religious authority in Britain and Europe; its great size and abundant natural resources; its relative lack of inherited and rigid legal, class and social barriers (excluding Native Americans and forcibly imported Africans).

Distinctive socio/political, geographic and economic circumstances enabled the American colonies to gradually develop institutions which, as it turned out, would have a far-reaching impact on the ideas and values of the rest of mankind. “American exceptionalism,” far from being the result of inherent superiority, was largely an unanticipated consequence of historical time and place. Nonetheless, understanding this historical context does not make this “exceptionalism” any less real or any less genuinely revolutionary.

[1] “Sorry, Still No American Exceptionalism in APUSH,” Stanley Kurtz, National Review, August 3, 2015.

[2] Joseph J. Ellis, Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams, 1993, 106-07

Dr. Stern is the author of numerous articles and “Averting ‘the Final Failure’: John F. Kennedy and the Secret Cuban Missile Crisis Meetings” (2003), “The Week the World Stood Still: Inside the Secret Cuban Missile Crisis” (2005), and “The Cuban Missile Crisis in American Memory: Myths vs. Reality” (2012), all in the Stanford University Press Nuclear Age Series. He was Historian at the Kennedy Library from 1977 to 2000.

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The Importance of Being Exceptional
From Ancient Greece to Twenty-First-Century America
By David Bromwich

TomDispatch.com   October 23, 2014

The origins of the phrase “American exceptionalism” are not especially obscure. The French sociologist Alexis de Tocqueville, observing this country in the 1830s, said that Americans seemed exceptional in valuing practical attainments almost to the exclusion of the arts and sciences. The Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, on hearing a report by the American Communist Party that workers in the United States in 1929 were not ready for revolution, denounced “the heresy of American exceptionalism.” In 1996, the political scientist Seymour Martin Lipset took those hints from Tocqueville and Stalin and added some of his own to produce his book American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword. The virtues of American society, for Lipset — our individualism, hostility to state action, and propensity for ad hoc problem-solving — themselves stood in the way of a lasting and prudent consensus in the conduct of American politics.

In recent years, the phrase “American exceptionalism,” at once resonant and ambiguous, has stolen into popular usage in electoral politics, in the mainstream media, and in academic writing with a profligacy that is hard to account for. It sometimes seems that exceptionalism for Americans means everything from generosity to selfishness, localism to imperialism, indifference to “the opinions of mankind” to a readiness to incorporate the folkways of every culture. When President Obama told West Point graduates last May that “I believe in American exceptionalism with every fiber of my being,” the context made it clear that he meant the United States was the greatest country in the world: our stature was demonstrated by our possession of “the finest fighting force that the world has ever known,” uniquely tasked with defending liberty and peace globally; and yet we could not allow ourselves to “flout international norms” or be a law unto ourselves. The contradictory nature of these statements would have satisfied even Tocqueville’s taste for paradox.

On the whole, is American exceptionalism a force for good? The question shouldn’t be hard to answer. To make an exception of yourself is as immoral a proceeding for a nation as it is for an individual. When we say of a person (usually someone who has gone off the rails), “He thinks the rules don’t apply to him,” we mean that he is a danger to others and perhaps to himself. People who act on such a belief don’t as a rule examine themselves deeply or write a history of the self to justify their understanding that they are unique. Very little effort is involved in their willfulness. Such exceptionalism, indeed, comes from an excess of will unaccompanied by awareness of the necessity for self-restraint.

Such people are monsters. Many land in asylums, more in prisons. But the category also encompasses a large number of high-functioning autistics: governors, generals, corporate heads, owners of professional sports teams. When you think about it, some of these people do write histories of themselves and in that pursuit, a few of them have kept up the vitality of an ancient genre: criminal autobiography.

All nations, by contrast, write their own histories as a matter of course. They preserve and exhibit a record of their doings; normally, of justified conduct, actions worthy of celebration. “Exceptional” nations, therefore, are compelled to engage in some fancy bookkeeping which exceptional individuals can avoid — at least until they are put on trial or subjected to interrogation under oath. The exceptional nation will claim that it is not responsible for its exceptional character. Its nature was given by God, or History, or Destiny.

An external and semi-miraculous instrumentality is invoked to explain the prodigy whose essence defies mere scientific understanding. To support the belief in the nation’s exceptional character, synonyms and variants of the word “providence” often get slotted in.  That word gained its utility at the end of the seventeenth century — the start of the epoch of nations formed in Europe by a supposed covenant or compact. Providence splits the difference between the accidents of fortune and purposeful design; it says that God is on your side without having the bad manners to pronounce His name.

Why is it immoral for a person to treat himself as an exception? The reason is plain: because morality, by definition, means a standard of right and wrong that applies to all persons without exception. Yet to answer so briefly may be to oversimplify. For at least three separate meanings are in play when it comes to exceptionalism, with a different apology backing each. The glamour that surrounds the idea owes something to confusion among these possible senses.

First, a nation is thought to be exceptional by its very nature. It is so consistently worthy that a unique goodness shines through all its works. Who would hesitate to admire the acts of such a country? What foreigner would not wish to belong to it? Once we are held captive by this picture, “my country right or wrong” becomes a proper sentiment and not a wild effusion of prejudice, because we cannot conceive of the nation being wrong.

A second meaning of exceptional may seem more open to rational scrutiny. Here, the nation is supposed to be admirable by reason of history and circumstance. It has demonstrated its exceptional quality by adherence to ideals which are peculiar to its original character and honorable as part of a greater human inheritance. Not “my country right or wrong” but “my country, good and getting better” seems to be the standard here. The promise of what the country could turn out to be supports this faith. Its moral and political virtue is perceived as a historical deposit with a rich residue in the present.

A third version of exceptionalism derives from our usual affectionate feelings about living in a community on the scale of a neighborhood or township, an ethnic group or religious sect. Communitarian nationalism takes the innocent-seeming step of generalizing that sentiment to the nation at large. My country is exceptional to me (according to this view) just because it is mine. Its familiar habits and customs have shaped the way I think and feel; nor do I have the slightest wish to extricate myself from its demands. The nation, then, is like a gigantic family, and we owe it what we owe to the members of our family: “unconditional love.” This sounds like the common sense of ordinary feelings. How can our nation help being exceptional to us?

Teacher of the World

Athens was just such an exceptional nation, or city-state, as Pericles described it in his celebrated oration for the first fallen soldiers in the Peloponnesian War. He meant his description of Athens to carry both normative force and hortatory urgency. It is, he says, the greatest of Greek cities, and this quality is shown by its works, shining deeds, the structure of its government, and the character of its citizens, who are themselves creations of the city. At the same time, Pericles was saying to the widows and children of the war dead: Resemble them! Seek to deserve the name of Athenian as they have deserved it!

The oration, recounted by Thucydides in the History of the Peloponnesian War, begins by praising the ancestors of Athenian democracy who by their exertions have made the city exceptional. “They dwelt in the country without break in the succession from generation to generation, and handed it down free to the present time by their valor.” Yet we who are alive today, Pericles says, have added to that inheritance; and he goes on to praise the constitution of the city, which “does not copy the laws of neighboring states; we are rather a pattern to others than imitators ourselves.”

The foreshadowing here of American exceptionalism is uncanny and the anticipation of our own predicament continues as the speech proceeds. “In our enterprises we present the singular spectacle of daring and deliberation, each carried to its highest point, and both united in the same persons… As a city we are the school of Hellas” — by which Pericles means that no representative citizen or soldier of another city could possibly be as resourceful as an Athenian. This city, alone among all the others, is greater than her reputation.

We Athenians, he adds, choose to risk our lives by perpetually carrying a difficult burden, rather than submitting to the will of another state. Our readiness to die for the city is the proof of our greatness. Turning to the surviving families of the dead, he admonishes and exalts them: “You must yourselves realize the power of Athens,” he tells the widows and children, “and feed your eyes upon her from day to day, till love of her fills your hearts; and then when all her greatness shall break upon you, you must reflect that it was by courage, sense of duty, and a keen feeling of honor in action that men were enabled to win all this.” So stirring are their deeds that the memory of their greatness is written in the hearts of men in faraway lands: “For heroes have the whole earth for their tomb.”

Athenian exceptionalism at its height, as the words of Pericles indicate, took deeds of war as proof of the worthiness of all that the city achieved apart from war. In this way, Athens was placed beyond comparison: nobody who knew it and knew other cities could fail to recognize its exceptional nature. This was not only a judgment inferred from evidence but an overwhelming sensation that carried conviction with it. The greatness of the city ought to be experienced, Pericles imagines, as a vision that “shall break upon you.”

Guilty Past, Innocent Future

To come closer to twenty-first-century America, consider how, in the Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln gave an exceptional turn to an ambiguous past. Unlike Pericles, he was speaking in the midst of a civil war, not a war between rival states, and this partly explains the note of self-doubt that we may detect in Lincoln when we compare the two speeches. At Gettysburg, Lincoln said that a pledge by the country as a whole had been embodied in a single document, the Declaration of Independence. He took the Declaration as his touchstone, rather than the Constitution, for a reason he spoke of elsewhere: the latter document had been freighted with compromise. The Declaration of Independence uniquely laid down principles that might over time allow the idealism of the founders to be realized.

Athens, for Pericles, was what Athens always had been. The Union, for Lincoln, was what it had yet to become. He associated the greatness of past intentions — “We hold these truths to be self-evident” — with the resolve he hoped his listeners would carry out in the present moment: “It is [not for the noble dead but] rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain — that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom.”

This allegorical language needs translation. In the future, Lincoln is saying, there will be a popular government and a political society based on the principle of free labor. Before that can happen, however, slavery must be brought to an end by carrying the country’s resolution into practice. So Lincoln asks his listeners to love their country for what it may become, not what it is. Their self-sacrifice on behalf of a possible future will serve as proof of national greatness. He does not hide the stain of slavery that marred the Constitution; the imperfection of the founders is confessed between the lines.  But the logic of the speech implies, by a trick of grammar and perspective, that the Union was always pointed in the direction of the Civil War that would make it free.

Notice that Pericles’s argument for the exceptional city has here been reversed. The future is not guaranteed by the greatness of the past; rather, the tarnished virtue of the past will be scoured clean by the purity of the future.  Exceptional in its reliance on slavery, the state established by the first American Revolution is thus to be redeemed by the second. Through the sacrifice of nameless thousands, the nation will defeat slavery and justify its fame as the truly exceptional country its founders wished it to be.

Most Americans are moved (without quite knowing why) by the opening words of the Gettysburg Address: “Four score and seven years ago our fathers…” Four score and seven is a biblical marker of the life of one person, and the words ask us to wonder whether our nation, a radical experiment based on a radical “proposition,” can last longer than a single life-span. The effect is provocative. Yet the backbone of Lincoln’s argument would have stood out more clearly if the speech had instead begun: “Two years from now, perhaps three, our country will see a great transformation.” The truth is that the year of the birth of the nation had no logical relationship to the year of the “new birth of freedom.” An exceptional character, however, whether in history or story, demands an exceptional plot; so the speech commences with deliberately archaic language to ask its implicit question: Can we Americans survive today and become the school of modern democracy, much as Athens was the school of Hellas?

The Ties That Bind and Absolve

To believe that our nation has always been exceptional, as Pericles said Athens was, or that it will soon justify such a claim, as Lincoln suggested America would do, requires a suppression of ordinary skepticism. The belief itself calls for extraordinary arrogance or extraordinary hope in the believer. In our time, exceptionalism has been made less exacting by an appeal to national feeling based on the smallest and most vivid community that most people know: the family.  Governor Mario Cuomo of New York, in his keynote address at the 1984 Democratic convention, put this straightforwardly. America, said Cuomo, was like a family, and a good family never loses its concern for the least fortunate of its members. In 2011, President Obama, acceding to Republican calls for austerity that led to the sequestration of government funds, told us that the national economy was just like a household budget and every family knows that it must pay its bills.

To take seriously the metaphor of the nation-as-family may lead to a sense of sentimental obligation or prudential worry on behalf of our fellow citizens. But many people think we should pursue the analogy further. If our nation does wrong, they say, we must treat it as an error and not a crime because, after all, we owe our nation unconditional love. Yet here the metaphor betrays our thinking into a false equation. A family has nested us, cradled us, nursed us from infancy, as we have perhaps done for later generations of the same family; and it has done so in a sense that is far more intimate than the sense in which a nation has fostered or nurtured us. We know our family with an individuated depth and authority that can’t be brought to our idea of a nation. This may be a difference of kind, or a difference of degree, but the difference is certainly great.

A subtle deception is involved in the analogy between nation and family; and an illicit transfer of feelings comes with the appeal to “unconditional love.” What do we mean by unconditional love, even at the level of the family? Suppose my delinquent child robs and beats an old man on a city street, and I learn of it by his own confession or by accident. What exactly do I owe him?

Unconditional love, in this setting, surely means that I can’t stop caring about my child; that I will regard his terrible action as an aberration. I will be bound to think about the act and actor quite differently from the way I would think about anyone else who committed such a crime. But does unconditional love also require that I make excuses for him? Shall I pay a lawyer to get him off the hook and back on the streets as soon as possible? Is it my duty to conceal what he has done, if there is a chance of keeping it secret? Must I never say what he did in the company of strangers or outside the family circle?

At a national level, the doctrine of exceptionalism as unconditional love encourages habits of suppression and euphemism that sink deep roots in the common culture. We have seen the result in America in the years since 2001. In the grip of this doctrine, torture has become “enhanced interrogation”; wars of aggression have become wars for democracy; a distant likely enemy has become an “imminent threat” whose very existence justifies an executive order to kill. These are permitted and officially sanctioned forms of collective dishonesty. They begin in quasi-familial piety, they pass through the systematic distortion of language, and they end in the corruption of consciousness.

The commandment to “keep it in the family” is a symptom of that corruption. It follows that one must never speak critically of one’s country in the hearing of other nations or write against its policies in foreign newspapers. No matter how vicious and wrong the conduct of a member of the family may be, one must assume his good intentions. This ideology abets raw self-interest in justifying many actions by which the United States has revealingly made an exception of itself — for example, our refusal to participate in the International Criminal Court. The community of nations, we declared, was not situated to understand the true extent of our constabulary responsibilities. American actions come under a different standard and we are the only qualified judges of our own cause.

The doctrine of the national family may be a less fertile source of belligerent pride than “my country right or wrong.” It may be less grandiose, too, than the exceptionalism that asks us to love our country for ideals that have never properly been translated into practice. And yet, in this appeal to the family, one finds the same renunciation of moral knowledge — a renunciation that, if followed, would render inconceivable any social order beyond that of the family and its extension, the tribe.

Unconditional love of our country is the counterpart of unconditional detachment and even hostility toward other countries. None of us is an exception, and no nation is. The sooner we come to live with this truth as a mundane reality without exceptions, the more grateful other nations will be to live in a world that includes us, among others.

David Bromwich teaches English at Yale University. A TomDispatch regular, he is the author most recently of Moral Imagination and The Intellectual Life of Edmund Burke: From the Sublime and Beautiful to American Independence.

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Liberals Need to Take Back the Idea of American Exceptionalism

HNN  August 10, 2014

Related Link  American Exceptionalism Watch (Ben Alpers)

The Wisconsin Public Radio/National Public Radio show To the Best of Our Knowledge regularly asks writers if they have a “Dangerous Idea” that they would like to talk about (unscripted). My Dangerous Idea was American exceptionalism.

I did not speak on the dangers of the right-wing rendition of American exceptionalism, but rather on the original idea of American exceptionalism, which is dangerous because it demands progressive action and struggle to realize. I spoke for several minutes. The producers then edited it down to three minutes. You can listen to my argument here. The following text is a slightly edited version of what I had to say:

American exceptionalism sounds like a very conservative idea, right?

But you know what? For more than 200 years, American exceptionalism was a radical idea. It was an idea of liberals and progressives. It was an idea that didn’t say “we are superior” – that we have all the answers. No, it was an idea about what America could be, should be and, if we act on it, would be.

Think back to the words of someone like Thomas Paine – “We have it in our power to begin the world over again” – and to his call for the creation of an unprecedented democratic republic. Think about the Founders and the writing of the U.S. Constitution. We hear about the Constitution’s conservatism. And yet those first words, “We the People.” Those are radical words. Those kinds of words provided American life with democratic imperative. They embedded a democratic impulse in American life.

You know, there’s a democratic spirit inside almost all Americans. The democratic idea of American exceptionalism insisted that We the People can govern – that we don’t need kings and aristocrats – that we can govern ourselves. And that we can govern ourselves not only politically, but also that we can govern ourselves economically and culturally.

And then think about the generations of Americans empowered by that argument, that vision, that promise: the Freethinkers, the Abolitionists, the women’s rights advocates, the labor unionists, the civil rights campaigners. Those folks believed in American exceptionalism and they used that belief – which they knew they shared with their fellow citizens – to challenge their fellow citizens to make America freer, more equal and more democratic.

That idea of American exceptionalism didn’t see American progress as natural or inevitable, but it was compelling. That idea of American exceptionalism empowered generations to make America better – to recognize that we were a grand experiment in democracy, and the only way you can carry out an experiment is to test its limits.

Now, something obviously went wrong. Today, when you hear the argument about American exceptionalism, it’s almost always a conservative argument – you know, it’s not about life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, but about life, liberty and the pursuit of property – that is, protect property, limit government. It’s not about democracy; it’s about individualism.

But even sadder than that – because we’ve always heard conservatives argue that kind of thing – is that, at best, we are told we have to defend what exists, not advance what exists.

But of course, the saddest thing is that liberals and progressives seem embarrassed by the idea of American exceptionalism, because they have somehow allowed themselves [we have somehow allowed ourselves] to believe that an argument for American exceptionalism is an argument for American superiority, an argument that claims “we have all the answers.’’

We need to remember that American exceptionalism [as Thomas Paine, Walt Whitman, Herman Melville, Eugene Debs, Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, and Martin Luther King saw it] is a challenge to enhance freedom, equality and democracy. Indeed, the danger is that if we forget that dangerous idea, we will cease to be Americans.

So, we progressives should redeem it.

Harvey J. Kaye is professor of democracy and justice studies at the University of Wisconsin-Green Bay and the author of the new book “The Fight for the Four Freedoms: What Made FDR and the Greatest Generation Truly Great” (Simon & Schuster). Follow him on Twitter: @harveyjkaye. This article was first published on Our Future.

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Russian Communists and their supporters are seen through a transparent portrait of Soviet dictator Josef Stalin as they lay flowers at his tomb at the Red Square in Moscow on March 5, 2013, to mark the 60th anniversary of Stalin's death. Photo by KIRILL KUDRYAVTSEV/AFP/Getty Images

Russian Communists and their supporters are seen through a transparent portrait of Soviet dictator Josef Stalin as they lay flowers at his tomb at the Red Square in Moscow on March 5, 2013, to mark the 60th anniversary of Stalin’s death.
Photo by KIRILL KUDRYAVTSEV/AFP/Getty Images

El  artículo de Vladimir Putin publicado en el New York Times, criticando una posible intervención militar estadounidense en Siria, ha levantado una gran polémica, entre otras cosas, por su referencia al alegado carácter excepcional de la nación norteamericana. Si proponerselo, Putin generó un gran debate académico e ideológico en torno al significado del exepcionalismo estadounidense. En este interesante artículo, el lingüista Ben Zimmer analiza  el origen de la frase misma, cuestionando que ésta hubiese sido creada por José Stalin.

Did Stalin Really Coin «American Exceptionalism»?
By Ben Zimmer

Slate.com  September 27, 2013

The phrase «American exceptionalism» has been much in the news ever since Russian President Vladimir Putin wrote an op-ed piece in the New York Times taking issue with President Obama’s statement that America’s foreign policy «makes us exceptional.» «I would rather disagree with a case he made on American exceptionalism,» Putin countered. «It is extremely dangerous to encourage people to see themselves as exceptional, whatever the motivation.»

Putin’s comments revived an old discussion about the origins of the phrase. On Talking Points Memo, Josh Marshall addressed an article by Terrence McCoy—»How Joseph Stalin Invented ‘American Exceptionalism‘»—that appeared last year on the Atlantic’s website. And on Real Clear Politics, Robert Samuelson wrote that «the most interesting fact to surface in the ensuing debate over «American exceptionalism» is that the phrase was first coined by Putin’s long-ago predecessor, Joseph Stalin.» But should Stalin really get the credit?

First off, it’s important to note that «American exceptionalism» has moved through a few different historical waves (as linguist Mark Liberman observed last year in his piece, «The third life of American Exceptionalism«). The first wave was in the ’20s and ’30s, when American socialists argued over whether the United States was immune to what Marx thought was an inevitable move of capitalist societies toward communism by means of violent struggle. The second wave (the focus of Josh Marshall’s TPM post) came after World War II, when historians like Richard Hofstadter reframed the question of «American exceptionalism» in a more positive manner, as a way to explain how the U.S. had avoided the bloody conflicts experienced by Europe in the 20th century.

Most recently, as when «exceptionalism» became a buzzword among Republican presidential candidates in the last election, the term takes on highly patriotic overtones, resonating with Ronald Reagan’s image of the U.S. as «a shining city on a hill.» Republicans have faulted Obama for lacking faith in American exceptionalism, which may have encouraged his «exceptional» rhetoric in his address to the nation on Syria. That might play well for a domestic audience, but to Putin it sounded jingoistic.

But back to Putin’s predecessor, Stalin. McCoy’s piece for the Atlantic seeks to dispel the idea that Alexis de Tocqueville had something to do with creating the expression. (He did call the U.S. «exceptional» in Democracy in America, but not to imply that the country was somehow extraordinary, as Mark Liberman also noted.) In the place of the de Tocqueville myth, however, McCoy introduces another:

In 1929, Communist leader Jay Lovestone informed Stalin in Moscow that the American proletariat wasn’t interested in revolution. Stalin responded by demanding that he end this «heresy of American exceptionalism.» And just like that, this expression was born. What Lovestone meant, and how Stalin understood it, however, isn’t how Gingrich and Romney (or even Obama) frame it. Neither Lovestone nor Stalin felt that the United States was superior to other nations—actually, the opposite. Stalin «ridiculed» America for its abnormalities, which he cast under the banner of «exceptionalism,» Daniel Rodgers, a professor of history at Princeton, said in an interview.

Stalin, to say the least, wasn’t happy with Lovestone’s news. «Who do you think you are?» he shouted, according to Ted Morgan’s biography of Lovestone. «(Leon) Trotsky defied me. Where is he? (Grigory) Zinoviev defied me. Where is he? (Nikolai) Bukharin defied me. Where is he? And you! Who are you? Yes, you will go back to America. But when you get back there, nobody will know you except your wives.»

While the heated exchange between Lovestone and Stalin is well-attested (it led to Lovestone’s expulsion from the Communist Party), it’s rather easy to debunk the notion that Stalin introduced the phrase «American exceptionalism» at this meeting. The biography cited by McCoy states that Lovestone and his delegation set sail from New York on March 23, 1929, and the delegation arrived in Moscow on April 27. Lovestone’s confrontation with Stalin had to have been after that date. But the earliest example given by the Oxford English Dictionary is from a few months earlier, in the Jan. 29 issue of the Daily Worker:

1929 Brouder & Zack in Daily Worker (N.Y.) 29 Jan. 3/2   This American ‘exceptionalism’ applies to the whole tactical line of the C.I. as applied to America. (This theory pervades all the writings and speeches of the Lovestone–Pepper group up until the present.)

And Lovestone may have been using the term earlier than that, as the OED also includes a bracketed citation from the Nov. 1928 issue of the Communist in which he lays out the «exceptionalism» thesis: «We are now in the period of decisive clashes between socialist reformism and communism for the leadership of the majority of the working class. This is in all countries of high capitalist development with the exception of the United States where we have specific conditions.»

If Stalin did indeed tell Lovestone (presumably through an interpreter) to end the «heresy of American exceptionalism» when they met in the spring of 1929, Stalin would have been throwing the phrase back at him rather than coining it anew, since Lovestone’s position on the matter had already been reported in the Communist press. Of course, that doesn’t make for as good a story. Then again, as long as Americans are feeling so patriotic in this latest wave of «exceptionalism,» why shouldn’t Americans get credit for coining the expression, rather than a French writer like de Tocqueville or a Soviet leader like Stalin?

A version of this post originally appeared on Language Log.

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